Association for Behavior Analysis International

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When asked why applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the most effective treatment for autism, Don Baer replied, "ABA is the discipline that has most consistently considered the problem of what behavior changes, made in what order and by what techniques, will confer the maximal benefit to the child." ABA's most scientifically documented outcomes of "maximal benefit" to children with autism have been achieved via early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) in home and clinic settings with children under age 6. While some children who have received EIBI make a smooth transition to public school classrooms, many others struggle mightily with the demands of a new and highly complex environment. ABA has yet to answer fully the question: What behavior changes produced by what techniques will accrue maximal success for students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in regular classrooms? A group of teachers, clinicians, researchers, and parents-all with extensive experience in ASD-were asked to identify the 3-4 most important (a) skills needed by students with ASD for success in general education classrooms, (b) instructional tactics teachers must know how to use to help students with ASD succeed in general education classrooms, and (c) things a behavior analyst should do or know to help teachers help students with ASD.

The group's responses revealed a remarkably similar set of behavior change targets (e.g., complete tasks without teacher prompts, interact appropriately with peers), instructional techniques for achieving those behavior changes (e.g., teach self-management, use collaborative learning activities), and suggestions for behavior analysts working in schools (e.g., simplify data collection, respect teachers' expertise and experience). This presentation will rely heavily on the collective wisdom and perspectives of this group of autism experts.

Certified assistant behavior analysts and behavior analysts, behavioral consultants, behavioral therapists, clinicians, educational consultants, psychologists, special education teachers, supervisors of early intervention programs, and other individuals working with children with autism or other developmental delays

1. Identify six skill areas most frequently listed by a group of autism experts as most important for success in regular classrooms by students with autism.
2. Define choral responding and response cards and how these techniques make group instruction more effective.
3. Briefly describe how Numbered Heads Together and well-designed classwide peer tutoring systems (CWPT) counter the problems that make many collaborative learning activities ineffective.
4. Identify three positive outcomes of teaching students how to recruit teacher attention and assistance.

A practitioner/service-provider manifesto/creed: We must train more students to become basic researchers. We must train more students to become applied researchers. But our journals and books are already full of evidence-based best practices, yet we are without enough practitioners to significantly impact the well being of humanity by implementing those best practices. So even more importantly, we must produce more well-trained practitioners. Furthermore, our practitioner theses and dissertations (a) must really help the participating children, (b) must help the participating classroom or setting, (c) must help the student become a better practitioner, (d) must get the student a degree, (e) and a publication would be nice, but is not crucial. This presentation will illustrate an attempt to follow our manifesto/creed.

Certified assistant behavior analysts and behavior analysts, behavioral consultants, behavioral therapists, clinicians, educational consultants, psychologists, special education teachers, supervisors of early intervention programs, and other individuals working with children with autism or other developmental delays

1. Describe the suggested problems with many programs designed to provide undergraduate and graduate training in autism.
2. Describe the proposed solutions to training undergraduate and graduate students in autism.

A child's potential is compromised when that child cannot express him or herself or does not understand what is being said. Frustration in communication often results in challenging behaviors. Intervention can offer conventional forms of communication and reduce problem behaviors. One form of intervention involves visual aids such as communication books or high technology devices from which the user selects symbols to produce messages; these are often called selection-based or aided augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). An interdisciplinary program of research that seeks to optimize the design of AAC systems will be discussed. This research integrates information from developmental psychology, visual cognitive science, and the experimental analysis of behavior to understand how individuals, particularly those with autism, process visual communication displays. Some unique demands of aided AAC will be highlighted and current research on visual functioning in autism will be reviewed. Specific ways in which cross-disciplinary collaboration between professionals in aided AAC intervention, autism spectrum disorders, and behavior analysis (groups that are not necessarily mutually exclusive of one another) could enrich both basic and applied sciences will be discussed. Behavior analytic approaches in particular excel at disentangling complex challenges of learning and attention through examination of the influences of stimuli in the environment on behavior. This approach may help optimize aided AAC displays because it can (a) enrich our understanding of the unique visual processing demands of selection-based AAC, and (b) contribute methodologies for studying the effects of these demands on behaviors related to aided AAC communication.

Certified behavior analysts, behavioral consultants, behavioral therapists, clinicians, educational consultants, psychologists, special education teachers, and individuals working with children with autism or other developmental delays.

1. Discuss the reasons that visual processing is important to development of optimally effective selection-based communication displays.
2. Identify the demands of selection-based AAC on visual attention and processing.    
3. Analyze the ways in which these demands may interact with the visual processing skills and limitations of individuals on the autism spectrum. 
4. Consider how emerging knowledge of AAC demands and display structure might influence construction of displays for clinical use.           

This discussion will cover topics and presentations from the morning sessions. Questions will be taken from the audience.

Behavior analysts have increasingly applied economic concepts towards understanding issues of social significance in areas such as consumer choice, gambling, and substance abuse. This presentation will describe a translational progression of studies that applies economic concepts to work with individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities, culminating in demonstrations of the implications for the treatment of behavior problems. Initial laboratory investigations revealed that although two stimuli may appear equally valuable when their cost (in terms of response requirements) is low, under certain circumstances differences in value emerge when the response requirements increase. In subsequent clinical studies, this general theme was extended towards examining (a) the utility of various consequences when arranging interventions for behavior disorders, and (b) examining how the analyses required to identify these relations can be made practical and practicable in applied settings.

Certified behavior analysts, behavioral consultants, behavioral economists, clinicians, educational consultants, psychologists, researchers, special education teachers, and individuals working with children with autism or behavioral disorders.

1. Explain what is depicted in a demand curve, both in terms of population consumption of a commodity and in relation to the consumption of reinforcers by individuals.
2. Describe what is meant by demand elasticity and how the concurrent availability of substitutable reinforcers influences demand elasticity.
3. Recognize at least one set of circumstances in which behavioral interventions for problem behavior may be more durable when they incorporate reinforcers that differ from those that maintain problem behavior.
4. Utilize a brief assessment of demand elasticity to predict which sort of reinforcer will result in the more durable intervention for escape-maintained problem behavior.             

Repetitive behavior and interests are a common clinical feature of autism. Specific patterns of behavior and interest give us insights into motivation in general. Functional or motivational theories are central to our understanding and treatment of many conditions; however, very little is known about motivational features in autism apart from general ideas of reduced social motivation and models of situational environmental correlates of aberrant behaviors. Research findings from the area of behavioral neuroscience of reward and addiction may help explain how repetitive behaviors and interests emerge, and how they can influence motivation, choice, learning and development in autism. Importantly, these basic research findings can be used to guide the development of novel forms of intervention in autism. In this talk, attendees will learn about (a) the clinical phenomenology of repetitive behavior and interests in autism, (b) brain-behavior research on interests and motivation in autism, and (c) how this research might be translated to everyday clinical practice.

Certified behavior analysts, behavioral consultants, behavioral therapists, clinicians, educational consultants, psychologists, special education teachers, supervisors of early intervention programs, and other individuals working with children with autism or other developmental delays.

1. Describe the role that a variety of repetitive behaviors can play in the clinical presentation of autism.
2. Identify findings from brain-behavior research on repetitive-behaviors, reward, and motivation.
3. Explain how a model of brain-behavior relationships for repetitive behaviors can be used to guide the development of novel interventions for autism.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) methods have been built into comprehensive, intensive, and often early intervention for children with autism. Supporters of these intervention approaches often enthusiastically share the evidence base for these interventions with parents and policy makers. Although the evidence is impressive, it is important to understand the nature of the evidence base so that its limitations can be ethically and professionally communicated. The evidence from decades of single case experimental designs under-pins ABA intervention with children with autism, but such studies might best be considered a fine example of practice-based evidence and also do not directly support comprehensive and intensive long term intervention models. Group design studies provide the core of the evidence base for comprehensive ABA interventions for children with autism. However, the way that this evidence is used is too often at least implicitly driven by a medical model understanding of autism. In this presentation, I will examine the limitations of the evidence for comprehensive ABA interventions for children with autism and discuss an alternative outcomes model that does not get caught up with the recovery/cure debate. This model draws on the concept of reliable change first discussed in the general psychological therapy outcomes literature.

Psychologists, behavior analysts, teachers, and other professionals working with children on the autism spectrum

1. Identify strengths and weaknesses of the evidence base for intensive behavioral intervention (IBI) for young children with autism
2. Describe ethical and professional issues related to the communication of IBI evidence to the non-ABA community
3. Describe the differences between a medically-informed perspective on outcomes of intervention for children with autism and an alternative “reliable change” perspective.

This discussion will cover topics and presentations from the afternoon sessions. Questions will be taken from the audience.

In this study we examined the influence of presession access to a reinforcer on communication intervention and generalization for a child diagnosed with autism whose challenging behaviors were maintained by access to tangibles. In the first phase of the study the consequences maintaining challenging behavior and their associated motivating operations were isolated. In Phase 2 we assessed the duration in which the child interacted the preferred tangible before he/she demonstrated satiation. In the third phase of the study, we taught replacement mands and systematically examined the influence of motivating operations by presenting various durations of access to the reinforcer prior to intervention sessions. Three durations of presession access were administered, based upon the mean latency to satiation; (a) no presession access to the reinforcer, (b) presession access equaled 25% of mean latency to satiation observed in phase two, and (c) 50% of mean latency to satiation. Finally, we probed for stimulus generalization of these new mands while systematically examining the influence of presession access to reinforcers utilized in Phase 3. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of including motivating operations during functional communication training.

In recent decades, educators have been faced with an ever-increasing number of students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that require specialized instruction to support learning and processing deficits. As students mature, the demand for individualization continues to be a priority. To address this need, educators need to be equipped with instructional tools that can differentially prepare these young adults to become contributing members to the communities in which they live. A large part of this instruction for high school age students includes vocational training to maximize a student's potential to purposefully engage in employment opportunities. Goals of the current mixed methods, embedded design study included the empirical analysis of one such intervention, video modeling, as well as capturing instructors' reaction to this particular intervention and vocational instruction for transition aged students with ASD. Quantitative analysis of measures of fluency and independence in task completion concluded that exposure to video modeling as a supplement to traditional instruction did not result in statistically significant changes, however practical improvements, specifically in independent demonstration of work tasks, were noted to the degree that video modeling should be further explored as viable vocational training option. Opinions of instructors were presented to contextualize findings.

The effectiveness of caregiver interviews and a paired-stimulus preference assessment in identifying reinforcers for children with diagnoses of autism or pervasive developmental disorder was assessed in the present study. An alternating treatments design was then used during a subsequent reinforcer assessment to measure the frequency of completed tasks. Correctly completed tasks resulted in access to a top ranked item from either preference assessment on a progressive fixed-ratio schedule. If identical stimuli were identified as the most preferred for both preference assessments, the second most preferred stimuli from both the caregiver interview and paired stimulus assessment were used as reinforcers in the reinforcer assessment. Both preference assessments correctly identified potential reinforcers as evidenced by an increase in task completion under both conditions. Response rates increased substantially for all participants when the top-ranked item from the paired stimulus assessment was presented contingent on task completion. However, response rates under the caregiver condition were lower than those of the paired stimulus condtion. In general, task completion occurred at a higher rate when preferred items from the paired stimulus assessment were used as a reinforcer in comparison to items used as reinforcers from the caregiver interview. The results suggested that more potent reinforcers are identified in paired stimulus assessments when compared to the items generated from caregiver interviews.

This study investigated the effect on play skills and language skills of preschool children with autism by giving video modeling intervention. The researchers used a multiple-probe design across three different play themes to demonstrate experimental control. In order to increase the ability of generalization for the child with autism, stimulus generalization training (provide different video scenario for each theme) was applied to this study. During intervention phase, the child watched the video twice himself and then was provided the toy set as in video after viewing, the procedure was not included experimenter-implemented reinforcement, neither prompting and correction procedures during the intervention. Results indicated that video modeling was an effective tool for teaching play skills and language skills to preschoolers with autism, which could lead to the rapid acquisition of the modeled coherent play actions and verbal expressions, and also demonstrate the generalization performance. In addition to the favor results showed in the graph, the procedure integrity, inter-observer agreement (IOA), and social validity were also showed the positive results to further support this evidence. These findings and future direction are also discussed in the paper.

This session will present the results of the study on the effects of video self-modeling (VSM) on improving the task avoidance behaviors (e.g., avoiding from using soap in hand washing) of five elementary-aged students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The VSM intervention consisted of showing the student a 1-min self-modeling video 3 to 5 days a week. For the student who exhibited the alternative appropriate behavior whenever teacher prompts were provided in the natural contexts, the video was produced by editing out teacher prompts and other irrelevant behaviors. For the student who rarely or never exhibited the alternative behavior even when teacher prompts were provided in the natural contexts, the alternative appropriate behavior was elicited and filmed in arbitrary situations where the student relaxed and easily complied with teacher requests. The behavior was then placed on each of the natural contexts by using special editing techniques (e.g., chroma key compositing). A multiple baseline design across participants indicated that the alternative behavior increased only after VSM interventions were implemented for three participants, but never increased for the remaining two participants. On the basis of the results, this session will discuss what factors may affect the effectiveness of VSM interventions.

This study examined the effects of Social Stories on the talk-out behavior of a 12-year-old boy with autism in both a traditional life skills classroom and in an independent study math class. The individualized Social Stories were first read to the participant and then the student read the Social Stories independently, out loud, at the beginning of each treatment session. The single-subject reversal research design included observations recorded in continuous 5-min intervals in two different settings. In the life skills setting, activities consisted of whole class instruction, group work with peers, and writing tasks. In the math section, when the participant worked for 10 minutes without a talk-out or completed a row of problems, he was rewarded with a play break or allowed to do an errand. The Social Stories intervention proved effective in reducing talk-outs when used in the math setting where contingent rewards were also given for quiet work, but did not appear to be effective in reducing talk-outs during the life skills class where no reward system was in place.

Typically of complex and idiosyncratic topography, higher-order repetitive behaviors are key elements to the definition and expression of autism spectrum disorders. Variously labeled compulsive, ritual, or sameness, these behaviors can cause stress to the individual, interfere with adaptive activities, and generally diminish quality of life. Procedures used to address similar behaviors characteristic of other conditions, such as phobic and obsessive compulsive disorders, frequently share a common basis in avoidance extinction. From basic flooding to cognitive behavioral therapies utilizing graduated exposure, these methods are well established in ameliorating avoidance maintained behaviors. The present study assessed the utility of basic avoidance extinction procedures in treatment of maladaptive higher-order repetitive behavior among persons with autism. Three male participants with frequent, nonsocially maintained higher-order repetitive behaviors were selected from a pool of 18 adults with autism and intellectual disability. Results indicated that intervention achieved extinction for two of the three participants, with the third showing a decrease in target behavior. Distinct extinction patterns were noted for the two participants who best responded to the treatment. Implications and limitations of experimental results are discussed.

With the increasing prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), there has been an associated surge in fad treatments (Metz, Mulick, & Butter, 2005). For example, some theorists have suggested that the gluten-free, casein-free (GFCF) diet decreases autistic behaviors (e.g., aggression) and gastrointestinal (GI) problems commonly found in individuals with ASD (DePinna & McCabe, 2010). However, this practice relies on a shaky conceptual basis and little or no empirical support (Mulloy, Lang, O'Reilly, Sigafoos, Lancioni, & Rispoli, 2010). Despite this, many parents and care providers report the effectiveness of this intervention. This study evaluated the GFCF diet in an adolescent diagnosed with autism. Dependent measures were problem behavior (i.e., self-injury, aggression, and disruptive behavior), stool frequency, and GI discomfort. Initially, the participant was on a strict GFCF diet; however he occasionally gained access to small quantities of restricted foods when food stealing was not successfully blocked. In the second phase of the study, foods containing gluten and casein were systematically introduced into his diet. Data were analyzed with respect to the occasional diet violations and food introductions on an hourly and daily basis. There was no orderly difference in any of the measures relating to consumption of gluten or casein foods.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) exhibit abnormal development in the areas of communication and social interactions from the time of birth or soon after. Social skills are important not only for making friends, but also for doing well in school, finding and keeping a job, and navigating through life. Because of the increasing prevalence of ASD, there is an increased need for social skills interventions, especially those that are portable and efficient (Stoneman, 2008). Because the primary education of children with ASD occurs in the school system, it is important that feasible, effective interventions be identified for use in the schools. One promising area of research is video modeling. Video modeling is based on the principles of social learning theory, where individuals watch others perform a skill and demonstrate the same skill. To examine possible means to improve the portability, utility and efficiency of video modeling, this research investigates two variables; (a) the effectiveness of commercially available video modeling materials and (b) the potential for implementation of video modeling as a group intervention. Specifically, the present study assesses the efficiency and effectiveness of Model Me Conversation Cues DVD presented both individually and in groups.

In this study we conducted two functional analyses with a 7-year-old male diagnosed with autism. The functional analyses were conducted 7 months apart. Both functional analyses were conducted in a clinical setting. Aggression was the target behavior for the first functional analysis. Aggression was defined as hitting, biting, scratching, and kicking. The conditions included ignore, access to tangible, attention, diverted attention, escape and free-play condition. Results indicated escape from demands as the function of the aggression. A treatment analysis was conducted, in which functional communication training (FCT), the acquisition of requesting a break, was effective to reduce the aggressive behavior. During applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy a new behavior, screaming, emerged. In order to identify the function of screaming, an additional functional analysis was conducted that included the same conditions as the previous study. Results indicated diverted attention maintained the screaming behavior. A treatment analysis was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of FCT to appropriately recruit attention. FCT consisted of teaching the participant to request attention.

Severe autistic eating disorders usually end with intensive inpatient treatment in specialized eating clinics. This case study concerns a 1.5-year-old girl who suffers from severe food and fluid refusal and was referred to a pediatric ward in a general hospital. The girl was treated using early intervention with escape extinction, neutral stimulation, and positive or negative reinforcement. The girl never had to be admitted to hospital. Her parents and the non-medical caretakers all used the same techniques with all her meals and drinks being served in her own home environment. At age 2.5 the meal time took 39 minutes. This decreased to 20 minutes at age 3. At age 2.5 all the above mentioned techniques were necessary to get her to eat. At the age of 3, only escape extinction and neutral stimulation were necessary. Before treatment, behavioral escalations and vomiting occurred on a daily basis. This decreased to once a month after treatment. Our conclusion is that non-medical people can use escape extinction, neutral stimulation, and positive and negative reinforcement as a treatment in the home environment. The main advantages of this treatment are that the home environment of the child is not disrupted and the costs of this treatment are extremely low. Enormous dedication is however asked from the non-medical caretakers.

Music therapy has been recognized as an emerging treatment by the National Autism Study. Yet, there is very little research which supports its use. This study examined the effects of playing musical nursery rhymes on the acquisition of tacts which were contained within those nursery rhymes. An alternating treatments design was employed to compare whether a nonverbal child with autism would have an increased rate of learning a tact because of the added exposure to the word embedded within the musical nursery rhyme when compared to that of other selected words which were not presented musically. The procedure consisted of a baseline phrase to determine the operant levels of the selected tacts, experimental phase of playing the nursery rhymes. Interobserver reliability was taken on the independent and dependent variables in each one of the treatment conditions and ranged from 90% to 100%. The results show that the embedding of tacts within musical nursery rhymes did not have a subsequent increased effect on learning tacts. These results will be discussed with regards to the use of music therapy to promote learning and skill acquisition and verbal skills.

Children with autism have been found to often display repetitive stereotypical behavior and deficits in play behavior. This study examined these behaviors in a 30-month-old child with autism to determine conditions under which stereotypical behavior and toy play could be manipulated. A reversal design along with multiple replications was used to measure the effects of toy density on changes in play and stereotypical behavior. The procedure consisted of a baseline phase along with experimental conditions: ignore, toys dense and toys reduced. During all conditions the child was not reinforced for toy play but ignored. The results from this study found that the child's play and stereotypical behavior could be increased and decreased based on the density, presence or absence of toys. In addition, not only was there an increase in the total amount of play occurring in the sessions but also the duration of play with the individual toys and the number of toys played with during the session. The results of the study suggest that toy play provides sensory feedback which is automatically reinforcing to the child. Thus, toy play can serve the same function and act as an alternative to stereotypical behavior.

Trained behavior consultants delivered functional analysis (FA) and functional communication training (FCT) through telehealth to young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) who displayed problem behavior. Participants were 9 young children between the ages of 18 months and 6 years who were diagnosed with ASDs. Participants lived in rural communities in Iowa and lived an average of 228 miles away from the major hospital that housed the behavior consultants. All procedures were conducted during weekly telehealth consultations in the participants' regional clinics, an average of 12 miles from their homes. Local parent coaches were trained via telehealth by behavior consultants to provide on-site support during consultations. Functional analyses were completed within a multielement design to identify the environmental variables that maintained problem behavior. FCT was implemented in the context identified by the FA within a noncurrent multiple baseline design. Interrater agreement was assessed during 30% of sessions and averaged over 90%. Two case studies will be presented. FA results suggested that both participants' problem behavior was maintained by escape from demands and access to tangible items. FCT for escape was implemented and reductions of problem behavior were over 90% across participants. Results suggested that FA and FCT can be conducted effectively and efficiently through telehealth.

Restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB) is more pervasive, prevalent, frequent, and severe in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), relative to their typical peers. One subtype of RRB is restricted interests in items or activities, which is evident in the manner in which individuals engage with items (e.g., repetitious wheel spinning), the types of items or activities they select (e.g., preoccupation with a phone book), or the range of items or activities they select (i.e., narrow range of items). Restricted interests may limit sources of stimulation, and interruption of engagement with restricted interests may evoke problem behavior (Charlop-Christy & Haymes, 1996; Hanley et al., 2003). Additionally, individuals with restricted interests may respond differentially to an array of items, positively toward preferred items and negatively toward nonpreferred items, potentially affecting the array of items presented to these individuals. The purpose of the present study was to use procedures similar to Carr and colleagues (1991) to evaluate the effects of the behavior of those with ASDs on caregiver presentation of items. Results show that caregiver presentation of items corresponds with differential responses provided by individuals with ASD, and those with restricted preferences experienced a narrower array of items. Caregiver sensitivity to student behavior is discussed in terms of expanding preferences.

There has been much research dedicated to interventions designed to help children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) acquire functional communication (Arntzen & Almas, 2002; Charlop-Christy, Carpenter, Le, LeBlanc & Kellet, 2002; Charlop and Trasowech, 1991; Egan & Barnes-Holmes, 2009; Durand, 1999; Reagan & Higbee, 2009). In contrast there is little research examining effective interventions for teaching children with ASD to tact private events. Specifically, school-aged children with limited functional communication are often taught basic requesting skills, while their ability to label internal events is often left unaddressed. This dearth of research is unfortunate given that when persons are taught to verbalize internal events, such as hunger or pain; they may gain access to powerful primary reinforcers, such as food or medicine. Thus the tact serves as a mand, gaining the person access to a reinforcer. In this study, the researcher sought to teach three school-aged boys with ASD and limited functional communication to verbally tact private events. The multiple baseline design increased vocabulary of the participants using discrete trial training, teaching receptive and expressive identification of basic emotions (happy, sad, mad, scared) and physical states (hungry, thirsty, sleepy). Next caregivers were trained in utilizing public accompaniment to promote routine-based generalization.

Children with autism show substantial delays in social communication development. Even though early intervention can increase language in preschoolers with autism, some children with autism may not respond to the interventions. The purpose of the study was to test the effects of a blended version of three extensive treatments, each designed to promote aspects of social communication. The blended intervention targeted joint attention engagement, symbolic play, and productive language. The first goal was to increase functional unprompted communication, and the second goal was to increase joint attention while increasing complexity and diversity of play skills. A multiple-probe design across three trainers was used to evaluate spontaneous language use and generalization of communication skills by a 55-month-old child with autism. The child received 30-min intervention sessions with a trainer in a clinic setting using various toy sets. Videotaped sessions were transcribed and coded for language, play, and joint attention. Interobserver agreement and procedural fidelity were collected. The results indicated the intervention was generally effective for increasing child communication. However, these skills were not generalized to other trainers. It is important for individuals working with children with autism to promote generalization across people for maximum benefits.

A review of research completed to date in the subject area of auditory matching demonstrates that teaching auditory match-to-sample (MTS) skills could be a behavioural cusp leading to the development of other important verbal behaviour milestones. The procedure that will be displayed is based on the work of Douglas Greer and colleagues and investigates the relationship between teaching auditory MTS skills and the development of conditional discrimination skills and receptive instruction following in children with autism. The independent variable is an auditory match-to-sample protocol to teach students to match increasingly complex auditory sounds/words/phrases to a matched stimuli in an array of 2 sounds. It is hypothesized that mastery of the auditory MTS procedure will increase the participants' ability to either answer multiple "wh" questions regarding a single item or to follow receptive instructions (dependent variables). Data is being collected according to a multiple baseline across subjects design. It is being collected on students' responses to either of the dependent variables. During intervention, data is being collected on the students' responses to auditory matching tasks. After mastery of each auditory MTS target, proficiency on the dependent variable tasks is assessed.

With classroom transitions occurring frequently and quickly, engaging in challenging behaviors during transitions make it difficult for students to participate in classroom routines and activities. At baseline, the student was allowed to choose where to work to make transitions easier, but continued to increase the frequency and intensity of challenging behaviors (i.e. elopement, aggression, climbing on furniture, spitting, regurgitation, etc.). These behaviors were primarily maintained by escape, but also by attention, access to tangibles, and automatic reinforcement. During the first phase of intervention, we targeted functional communication for a break and used environmental arrangements for an assigned work area next to the break area, which was a small gated area immediately outside the back of the classroom. The challenging behaviors decreased, but the student learned additional behaviors to escape the break area outside the classroom. In the second phase of intervention, we moved the break area to an empty spare bathroom attached to the classroom and moved his work space next to it. With these modifications in place, the challenging behaviors significantly decreased and were maintained at low levels. With successful transitions, the student had increased compliance during academic demands and maintained low levels of behaviors throughout the day.

People with autism often have difficulties engaging in independent leisure activities. Currently, there is little research investigating methods to teach these skills to people with autism. In the present study, a multiple probe design across participants was used to assess whether four adolescents with autism could learn to play Nintendo Wii Fit. Specifically, manual prompting, graduated guidance, and reinforcement was used to teach the adolescents to (a) use an activity schedule to set up the Nintendo Wii and to select the exercises, (b) follow the Wii Fit video model to complete the various exercises, and (c) stay on task during the session. In addition, multiple exercises were taught to promote generalization of the use of the Wii Fit system. The results indicated that all participants successfully played Nintendo Wii Fit and these skills generalized to novel exercises not used during teaching demonstrating a generalized repertoire of the use of the Wii Fit system. In conclusion, this study extended the literature by providing an additional way to teach functional leisure time activities for people with autism.

Restraint procedures are used in school settings to maintain the safety of students and staff members. These procedures include mechanical restraint, physical restraint, and seclusion-time out. There is currently legislation in committee in the House of Representatives that could result in the first federal mandate regarding use of restraint procedures in school settings. In 2010, the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) issued a position statement regarding the use of restrictive procedures such as restraint and seclusion. Among the various issues addressed in the statement, ABAI indicates that behavior analysts must have a plan to fade restrictive procedures that are included in behavior intervention plans. The current study includes the fading of a seclusion-time out procedure. A male student diagnosed with autism displayed aggressive behaviors directed at staff and peers. The seclusion-time out protocol in the behavior intervention plan specified the release from seclusion to occur at a fixed time. That is, release from seclusion was not contingent on behavior but passage of time. Results indicated the seclusion time out procedure was successfully faded from 30-s fixed time release to 3-s fixed time release. This fading procedure decreased the student's exposure to the restrictive procedure.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of directed play versus free play on the occurrences of stereotypic behavior during a structural analysis. The participant was an early childhood male with developmental disabilities and autism who displayed stereotypy (e.g. falling to his knees and banging of wrists) and stereotypic toy play (e.g. repetitive hitting of toys). The structural analysis was completed by the child's classroom teacher in an outpatient clinic setting as part of the Iowa Department of Education Challenging Behavior Service project. Interobserver agreement was assessed across 100% of sessions and averaged 92%. The structural analysis was conducted within a multielement design. Condition A (work), consisted of Discrete Trial Training work sessions; in Condition B (directed play), the child was provided with toys and attention and he was directed how to play; and in Condition C (free play), the child was provided with toys and attention, and play directives were not delivered. Results showed that stereotypic behavior was occasioned by free play, and stereotypic behavior did not occur in the more structured conditions (work and directed play). A similar assessment will occur within the child's classroom, and a discussion of results will be provided.

The purpose of this analysis was to assess social validity with two adolescent males diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in addition to their caregivers and other relevant stakeholders. Both participants engaged in high levels of automatically reinforced motor stereotypy and previously experienced a treatment component analysis designed to identify the necessary components to decrease stereotypy and increase appropriate play behavior. The treatment consisted of enriching the environment with leisure materials, prompting appropriate play, restricting access to motor stereotypy through blocking, and providing access to the stereotypy contingent on appropriate play behavior. The present analysis objectively assessed each client's preference, using a concurrent-chains arrangement, for this treatment package versus other relevant treatments commonly used to treat stereotypy (e.g., blocking only, activities only). An indirect assessment was then conducted with caretakers and other relevant stakeholders of each participant via viewing video clips and filling out a questionnaire, to assess the social acceptability of the purpose, goals, and effects of treatment (i.e., behavior changes observed after experiencing treatment) and the procedures that were implemented. Results of the treatment preference assessment indicated that both participants preferred conditions where activities were present as well as the treatment package. Social validity assessed by caregivers and relevant stakeholders indicated overall that the treatment package purpose, goals, treatment procedures, and amount of behavior change were appropriate and acceptable.

One of the frequently observed deficits in autistic children is their lack of spontaneous speech (Ingenmey & Houten, 1991). The purpose of this study was to increase spontaneous speech to "I want ____" in the presence of the appropriate object (Charlop et al. 1985) and fade the prompt through phase changes so the request became totally spontaneous. Prior to the introduction of prompts, the instructor introduced tacts (labeling) of the selected preferred objects. The instructor then promoted acquisition of the ability to mand for these items by presenting prompts in phases from most to least and measuring through a changing criterion design. The prompts consisted of (a) I want the toy (ex), (b) I want the ______, (c) I ____ ____ ____, and (d) no verbal prompt (instructor waiting for the child's mand). Two boys, ages 3 and 4, diagnosed with autism comprised the study. Parents were trained in this technique through each phase to assist in generalizing the behavior across both clinical and home settings. Results similar to a study by Charlop et al. (1985), concurred with spontaneous speech generalizing across settings and data collected over several criterion changes demonstrated experimental control.

An essential component of educating children with autism using the techniques of applied behavior analysis (ABA) is parent training. In the literature, the term "parent training" is loosely defined as didactic instruction, modeling, in-vivo training, and often some combination of these techniques as a parent training package. Furthermore, evaluation of available parent training models often relies on indirect measures making it difficult to interpret which component of the parent training results in parents skill acquisition, if any. The current study extends the research by evaluating the effects of different parent training techniques. Three dyads of children diagnosed with autism and their parents participated in the study. A non-concurrent multiple-baseline design across child-parent dyads was employed to assess the effects of didactic training (lecture and verbal explanation), modeling (observing a trainer working hands-on with the child), and behavioral skills training (opportunities to implement procedures and receive in-vivo feedback in addition to the trainer modeling procedures). The results of this study demonstrate that behavioral skills training is necessary for effective parent training. These results offer a model of training parents to implement teaching programs with their children and can offer a starting point for individuals who are not currently receiving ABA treatment.

Interventions that teach spontaneous language are crucial for the social development of children with autism. Script fading procedures have been shown to be effective for teaching children with autism to initiate and participate in social interactions without prompts from adults. Previous script and script fading research, however, was not effective in demonstrating a generalized repertoire of verbal interactions with stimuli in the natural environment. In this study, four boys with autism were taught to initiate a conversation in the presence of a toy through the use of script fading procedures with multiple exemplar training. Six training categories of toys were also used to increase the likelihood of generalization of verbal interactions across novel toys. A multiple-baseline with a multiple probe across-subjects design was used to assess the successes of this procedure to increase spontaneous, novel language. Script fading procedures along with multiple-exemplar training were demonstrated to be a successful technique for teaching individuals with autism to initiate and sustain verbal interactions under the control of stimuli present in the environment, as opposed to teacher-controlled stimuli. Additional research pertaining to the specific implementation of these procedures (e.g., fading procedures, script placement, and participant characteristics) is still needed.

Many children with autism do not share and spontaneously seek enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people. These skills, typically referred to as joint attention, are often seen in children of typical development at approximately 9 months of age. Joint attention skills play a fundamental role in language and social development. Although many studies have assessed joint attention skills, only a few researchers have investigated teaching procedures. In the current study, a concurrent multiple baseline design with a multiple probe across4 participants with autism was used to evaluate the use of prompting, reinforcement, and script fading procedures on the acquisition of a generalized repertoire of joint attention skills. Forty-eight stimuli from four different experimenter-defined categories were used to increase generalization of joint attention skills from trained stimuli to novel stimuli. Bids for joint attention systematically increased in the presence of both training and novel stimuli and settings for all 4 participants.

Very little research exists on training parents to teach vocal mands in the home. A behavioral skills training package consisting of instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback was used to train three parents to teach vocal mands to their non-verbal children with pervasive developmental disorders. Parents learned to sequentially teach their child to: (a) point to a preferred item in view, (b) give eye-contact for at least 1 s, (c) make an oral-motor approximation of a target sound, and (d) imitate an echoic prompt to gain access to the preferred item. Generalization of parent teaching and child correct responding was assessed across novel settings and stimuli. Parents learned to teach vocal mands, their skills generalized across novel settings and stimuli, and child correct responding increased. Immature mands, such as crying, yelling and grabbing decreased for 2 out of 3 children when they learned to mand preferred items. Behavioral skills training is an effective and efficient method of training parents to teach vocal mands in the home.

Limited verbal language skills are a common trend presented in individuals with autism. It has been suggested that stimulus equivalence procedures may be an important tool in the development of language skills. Stimulus equivalence procedures have been widely used when teaching individuals with intellectual disabilities. Considering the language difficulties presented in individuals with autism, it may be important to apply stimulus equivalence procedures to the autism population. In the present study, combined tests for symmetry and transitivity for equivalence relations (teach aRb and aRc, test bRc and cRb) were implemented to teach sight word reading and spelling for a 10 year-old non-vocal verbal male diagnosed with autism. An ABC design was used. During the intervention, it will be taught that when shown a picture (a), the participant will successfully emit its corresponding sign (b). The participant will then demonstrate equivalence by matching a picture (a) to its corresponding sight word (c). The purpose of this study is to show that after demonstrating successful equivalence relations of aRb and aRc, the participant will show untrained mastery of emitting a sign when shown its corresponding sight word (bRc) and when shown the sign, will select the corresponding sight word (cRb).

Studies on functional analysis demonstrate that some challenging behaviors are maintained by the attention of others (Iwata et al. 1982, 1994). Studies on the matching law show that problem behaviors relative to appropriate ones correlated with the primary care providers' attention (Borrero & Vollmer, 2002; Symons & al., 2003). Delivering the therapist attention contingent to children's behaviors is an important component of intervention and should be planned rigorously. The objective of this study is to describe the attentional behaviors of three therapists occurring naturally and contingently to social behaviors of three children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), between 3- to 5-years-old, during a community-based early behavioral intervention program. Those children-therapist dyad behaviors were filmed for seven periods of 360 intervals (total of 2520 interval; 5-s interval) and inter-rater reliability was calculated for 14.3% of the intervals. The results show that 59 to 76% of appropriate social behaviors and 30 to 55% of inappropriate social behaviors are followed by attention of the therapist. The results will be discussed according to the social sensitivity (matching) of children and according to the results of other studies (e.g. Paquet et al. 2009) which reveal a low percentage of adult attention following behaviors of ASD children in regular schools.

Children on the autism spectrum often have significant difficulties in the areas of communication and expressive language (Charlop & Haymes, 1994). Although there are many empirically supported interventions for teaching language skills to children with autism, most focus on teaching functional communication through direct reinforcement (Risley & Wolf, 1967; Wolf, Risley, & Mees, 1964; Koegel & Williams, 1980). Picture exchange communication (Charlop-Christy, Carpenter, Le,Leblanc & Kellet, 2002), functional communication training (Worsdell, Iwata, Hanley, Thompson, & Kahng, 2000), and mand training (Carol Murphy & Dermot Barnes-Holmes 2010) have all been proven effective treatment procedures to establish and expand language in children with autism. These procedures all provide a model and then deliver reinforcement for the occurrence of the targeted communicative response. The current study attempted to replicate findings suggesting that an expanded language model provided after correct responding to a model had been reinforced could result in increased language production (Werts, Wolery, Holcombe, & Fredrick, 1993). The data from the current study indicate that providing a post-reinforcement expanded model did not result in acquisition and generalized use of the expansion in 3 out of 3 subjects without additional intervention.

Children with disabilities including autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other developmental disabilities (DD) often need training in safety-related areas. Literature indicates that no studies have been conducted in which video modeling has been used to teach a safety skill to young children with autism. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of using video modeling to train young children with ASD to walk around a 3-dimensional yellow safety marker used in many public locations. The marker indicated a wet area below the marker. Three students, between ages 4 and 6 years, watched a 2-minute video of an adult demonstrating the proper procedure for safely walking around the yellow marker. After watching the video the students were prompted to walk down the hall, then reinforced for completing the task using simple social reinforcement for completing the task. The subjects participated in a study where an AB design with generalization to a novel setting was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Social validity was assessed through an adapted Intervention Rating Profile-15. The results have contributed to the literature supporting the use of video modeling for teaching safety skills to young children with autism.

The use of functional analysis (FA) methodology has been a critical tool in applied behavior analysis for over 20 years (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman & Richman, 1982/1994). Variations in functional analysis methodology have been developed over the years to make the process more efficient while continuing to provide reliable outcomes. Use of functional behavior assessments is mandated by federal law (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004) although the method of assessment is left to the discretion of the school system conducting the assessment. The following poster presents FAs conducted in public schools for various challenging behaviors (e.g., feeding, aggression, and stereotypy). Results from these FAs were subsequently used for intervention development and implementation. Differentiated outcomes were obtained for participants in less than 60 minutes of assessment in all cases. Discussion of the value of FA methodology use in public schools and corresponding challenges to implementation will be outlined.

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is commonly used to teach a verbal repertoire to nonvocal children with autism. Initial PECS training typically requires two adults to teach communicative responses; one adult acts as a listener and a second adult provides manual guidance to facilitate the picture exchange. However, many public school settings may not have the resources to support two instructors for a single child. The present investigations examined procedures for teaching the PECS to a child with autism using video modeling and a single interventionist. A functional analysis was conducted during Study 1 to identify the conditions under which the participant emitted idiosyncratic gestural mands. Video modeling was then used during Study 2 to teach the participant to mand using picture exchange under two conditions; one condition involved video sequences related to the results of the functional analysis whereas the second condition involved unrelated video sequences. The participant acquired and generalized picture exchange mands more rapidly during the function-based condition. The results have implications for video modeling and for using the PECS in public school settings where human resources may be limited.

Federal regulations require that all students with disabilities, including those with severe disabilities, participate in the general curriculum and be included in core content assessments. Although research-based practices for teaching math and reading to students with severe disabilities are available, there is very little evidence on how to teach science content to this population. This study examined the effects of scripted lessons alone and in combination with guided notes during science instruction on science quiz scores of three elementary students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities and autism. This study used a multiple probe across three science units design with replication across students, and included four conditions of baseline, scripted lessons, scripted lessons plus guided notes, and maintenance. Results showed a change in level from baseline to the scripted lessons condition for all 3 participants and additional slight improvement in scores during the scripted lessons plus guided notes condition for 2 participants. Further, acquisition of science content maintained over time for all participants. These findings suggest that scripted lessons with explicit instruction and the use of guided notes may be useful when teaching science content to students with autism and severe disabilities.

Research suggests that response interruption and redirection (RIRD) can be a successful procedure to decrease vocal stereotypy produced by individuals with autism. The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of RIRD with differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO) to treat vocal stereotypy for a 14-year-old boy with autism. A functional assessment was conducted which determined that the target behaviour was maintained primarily by automatic positive reinforcement. Following baseline, RIRD was implemented contingent on non-contextual vocalizations produced by the learner during intensive teaching trials, transitions between activities, and eating times. RIRD consisted of the instructor interrupting the learner and presenting three consecutive vocal demands (echoics) which the learner complied with. The vocal demands presented were related to the current context and were demands that the learner had shown previous mastery with. The DRO procedure was implemented on a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement and was thinned for every3 days of a decreasing trend in the target behaviour. RIRD combined with a DRO has produced a significant decrease in vocal stereotypy for this particular learner. The described intervention continues to be implemented for this learner and plans for generalization and maintenance are being explored to further expand the literature on this procedure.

Systematic instruction is needed when teaching children with autism. Therefore, researchers and teachers search for the effective and efficient procedures. Simultaneous prompting and graduated guidance procedures are two response prompting procedures. Research consistently has shown that both procedures are effective in teaching various skills to children with autism. During simultaneous prompting the teacher delivers the prompt right after discriminative stimuli and the prompt should be same throughout the instruction. In graduated guidance procedure the teacher uses a prompt hierarchy but takes decision moment to moment based on the response of the student. However, there is no such study comparing the differential effects of simultaneous prompting and graduated guidance procedures in teaching discrete skills to children with autism. Also, maintenance and generalization effects of these two procedures are compared. Besides these general aims, the acquisition of nontarget information is investigated in the study. An adapted alternating treatment design was used and 4 children with autism participated in this study. Results showed that both procedures are effective in teaching various discrete skills to children with autism. Children with autism acquired the nontarget information to a certain extend.

Visual technologies such as eye-tracking are often used to study child behavior regarding how they interact with their environment. In this study, an approach with audio recording and automatic processing is developed. A digital recorder was worn by a child for a whole day to collect his/her sound and other sounds in the natural environment. Pattern recognition is used to automatically detect different sound segments, including key-child, other-child, adult-male, adult-female, overlapped-sounds, noise, television and silence, with non-silence segments further labeled as clear or faint, producing a sequence of segment labels. Similar to Markov Modeling, transition probabilities related to key-child could be characterized as the pattern of how key-child interacts with the environment. There are 3 types of probabilities: (1) P(A=>B), the probability of the next segment being B given the current segment label A; (2) P(B<=A), the probability of the previous segment being B given the current label A; (3) P(A-B), the probability of the pair (A-B) in a whole recording. Either A or B is key-child. There are 84 such probabilities. Discriminant analysis was tried to identify children with autism from children of typical development and children with language delay, achieving 81.7% and 75.5% equal sensitivity and specificity respectively.

Intensive behavioral intervention (IBI) therapists are trained to deliver high rates of trials to maximize learning. Few researchers have systematically documented rates of trial delivery or tested interventions to increase pace. Behavioral research in areas such as direct instruction and fluency-based instruction has established the importance of maintaining high rates of trial delivery. This study compares two staff interventions to video-based staff training in an alternating treatments design with returns to baseline replicated across three staff. For the prompting intervention, staff wore a small media player that delivered audiovisual prompts to increase trial delivery and decrease non-instructional time. For the self-monitoring intervention, staff received a graph of their previous week's average pace and a goal for the current week. Initial findings suggest the prompting intervention, completed by two staff, resulted in a change in level compared to baseline with an average increase of 22 trials per session. For the third staff, the self monitoring intervention resulted in an increase of 29 trials per session. Returns to baseline and implementation of the alternate interventions are ongoing. Results suggest in-session interventions, rather than staff training increases pace. The link between staff pace and child learning remains untested.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by marked impairments in social interaction and communication. Although early language and cognitive development research emphasizes the need for in-home observation and assessment (e.g., Woods, 2008), professionals generally rely on clinical observation and parent report to assess a child's social patterns and communicative abilities. Indeed, direct methods of naturalistic observation have not been widely adopted due to resource intensive transcription and coding requirements. However, recent technological advances now facilitate day-long naturalistic behavioral data collection. The language environment analysis (LENA) system includes a digital audio recorder worn by children ages 2-48 months that records child vocalizations and nearby sound continuously for 16 hours. Recordings are processed using speech recognition technology to quantify information about the child's language environment. The software automatically identifies periods of child and adult interaction, parsing them into "conversations", or parent/child alternations bounded by >5 seconds of non-interaction, thus allowing us to automatically quantify conversational patterns of young children based on speech samples collected unobtrusively all day in a completely naturalistic environment. The current analysis examines daily interactional patterns between parent/caregiver and child in a group of 79 children 16-48 months of age diagnosed with autism (ASD), compared to an age range-matched sample of 318 typically developing (TD) peers. TD participants were drawn from an existing longitudinal database including 3,339 12-hour recordings from 378 typically-developing children. We focus here on child-initiated conversations (CICs) between child and adult and child monologues (CMs). Compared to the TD group, the ASD group produced significantly more CMs, a smaller percentage of CICs (relative to all conversations), and CICs that were shorter in duration (all p <. 01). In both groups, age-standardized CIC frequency predicted CDI general development (p < .05), and age-standardized CIC duration predicted CDI expressive language ability (p < .01), suggesting the potential for automatic conversational analysis as a proxy measure for development and/or early identification of breakdown. Implications for tracking early cognitive and social development and comparing parent/child interaction patterns with other developmental indicators are discussed.

The non-contingent delivery of food or liquid is often recommended to suppress rumination, the repeated regurgitation and rechewing of partially digested food. However, it is unclear how long this reduction endures once the non-contingent delivery is terminated. The current study examined the direct and distal effects of non-contingent juice upon rumination by measuring the duration of rumination during juice delivery and after delivery was terminated. The results indicated that non-contingent juice suppressed rumination, but this suppression was brief and did not maintain upon terminating delivery. The current results raise concerns regarding the use of fixed time (FT) food or liquid to produce lasting decreases in rumination.

Moe is a 15-yr-old boy with autism. Moe attends the Sussex Consortium, which is a component of the Delaware Autism Program, a state-wide public school program for students with autism. Children with autism display maladaptive behaviors as well as rigidity and require strict adherence to teaching methodology. Moe was preparing to join Special Olympics swim team but would only enter the pool using the steps in the shallow end. Moe exhibited maladaptive behaviors in the form of tantrums and aggressions when made to enter the pool from the deep end. The previous educational team used physical prompting (4 people physically prompted into the deep end). Moe exhibited maladaptive behaviors (aggression and tantrums poolside) and eventually refused to swim altogether. Then maladaptive behaviors prior to going to the pool were exhibited so he was not allowed to go due to safety concerns. The current educational team developed a shaping plan using a "spot" to teach Moe to enter the pool in the deep end (typical start line) in order to participate in swim practice and in Special Olympics swim team.

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is an intervention for problem behavior in which the reinforcer maintaining problem behavior is delivered only following an alternative desirable behavior (e.g., a communicative response). Although this intervention is highly effective when implemented by trained clinicians, it is generally assumed that caregivers will not be able to implement this intervention with maximal fidelity. Thus research has been dedicated to evaluating the impact of likely fidelity failures in highly controlled environments (e.g., delayed reinforcement of alternative behavior) and in evaluating intervention modifications to make treatment effects withstand these likely challenges (e.g., gradual exposure to delays to reinforcement). However, research has not evaluated (a) the forms of integrity failures that are present in natural environments or (b) the efficacy of additional training in allowing interventions to withstand these challenges. This current study was conducted in multiple parts. First, following a demonstration of the efficacy of DRA at reducing problem behavior in a controlled environment, we then trained parents to implement DRA and conducted descriptive observations of them implementing DRA in their natural environment across at least 2 days with a minimum of 2 hours of total observation time. From these data we were then able to determine the prevalence of varying forms of procedural fidelity failures. Next, we evaluated the impact of these integrity failures in a controlled environment. Third, we implemented additional training and examined the effects of these additions at minimizing problem behavior in the natural environment.

It is common to teach alternative communication systems such as sign language (a topography-based system) or picture exchange systems (a selection-based system) to individuals with deficient vocal verbal repertoires. Previous researchers have demonstrated the expedited efficiency of topography-based communication systems in the acquisition of tacts, intraverbals, and receptive behavior; however, researchers have not directly compared topography- and selection-based systems in the acquisition of mands. We did so in the current study by simultaneously teaching both a selection-based mand (picture exchange) and a topography-based mand (manual sign) for identical items via an adapted alternating-treatments design. We replicated these results via a multiple baseline design across target items. We will discuss our results in terms of determining effective and efficient verbal behavior interventions.

Clinical and educational consultants working in schools are rarely capable of directly observing problem behavior continuously during the school day. Those that rely on direct observation will typically conduct observational samples (e.g., three, 15-min observations per day) with the hopes that those observations are representative of performance during the remainder of the day. No research of which we are aware has determined the quantity of duration of observations that should be conducted to identify an adequately representative sample. In the current study, we continuously observed the problem behavior of 4 referred students with autism during their entire school day for one week. We then randomly extracted observational samples from these observations to determine both the frequency and duration of observations required to correspond to the total observation.

Forward and backward chaining procedures are used to teach multiple-step tasks by breaking the task into its component steps and teaching each step sequentially. Comparative studies of forward and backward chaining have provided an insubstantial amount of evidence illustrating either as consistently more effective and have led some to suggest that sensitivity to each teaching procedure may be idiosyncratic across learners and tasks. Such an assumption posits that there would be a consistent sensitivity to one chaining procedure relative to the other within individual learners; however, research has not yet evaluated this assumption. The purposes of the current study were threefold. First, we assessed differential sensitivity to each chaining procedure within children when presented with multiple learning tasks of similar content but different complexity (i.e., number of steps required). Second, we evaluated whether differential sensitivity to a chaining procedure during a brief task was predictive of differential sensitivity during the teaching of longer tasks. Third, we directly assessed children's preferences for each teaching procedure via a concurrent-chains preference assessment. Learners acquired all target skills introduced under both chaining conditions, but individual children did not consistently learn more efficiently with either procedure. Short-duration tasks were not predictive of participant performance in longer-duration tasks. Both chaining procedures were preferred relative to a baseline condition without prompting, but participants did not demonstrate a preference for either procedure. In sum, backward and forward chaining procedures were equally efficient and preferred for teaching multiple-step motor tasks.

Written expression is a fundamental skill for individuals in educational and community contexts. Unfortunately, researchers have suggested that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may have difficulty acquiring writing skills (Gabig, 2008; Myles et al., 2003). This is especially problematic in light of the data indicating that many students with ASD may not be able to rely on the use of sufficient vocal repertoires to communicate effectively (Miranda-Linne & Melin, 1997). Few researchers have evaluated the effects of instruction on the writing skills of individuals with ASD. In this investigation, the researcher evaluated the effects of simultaneous prompting on the acquisition of computer-based story construction responses across 5 participants with ASD. The researchers used a multiple probe across behaviors for each participant. Data indicated that the participants acquired targeted responses. In addition, they emitted generalized responses across different topographies. Finally, the data indicated that students acquired non-targeted information (e.g., sight word reading responses) during instruction.

Social skills are challenging to teach effectively because they require specific programming for generalization to occur. This study adds to the literature examining the efficacy of combining social stories and video modeling. The targeted skills were addressed in this study by using social stories created by the child in response to prompts provided by the therapist. These social stories were used to create videos that demonstrated each target skill using the trainer and the child as the models. Prior to entering a social situation, the child would review each video using a portable electronic device and verbally identify the skill used in each video to the trainer. Upon correctly identifying all videos, the child would enter the social situation and demonstrate those skills with minimum prompting from the trainer. The target skills addressed were "greetings with introductions", "reciprocal questions", "sharing preferred items during play", and "joining in play with peers." In this single-subject multiple-baseline design, the participant showed improvement in all skill areas addressed. The improvements gained during the study were maintained upon return to baseline. This continuation of the progress upon return to baseline demonstrates the successful generalization of these targeted skills.

When working with children with challenging behavior, often a family's primary goal is to maintain changes that have been achieved by highly trained staff when the staff are no longer present. Examining changes in rates of problem behavior during transfer of stimulus control may help to determine criteria for successful transfer. Interfering behavior of a 9-year-old female with autism was examined during home and community-based sessions. Intervention occurred in 3 weekly sessions targeting independent skill acquisition for activities of daily living, including tolerating and completing hygiene routines, independent play activities, and community shopping trips. As mastery criteria for independence was achieved with trained staff for each target skill, family members were instructed on how to deliver instruction, schedules of reinforcement, and correction procedures to maintain independence. The proximity of trained staff to the instructional setting was systematically faded and stimulus control was transferred to family members. Data collected demonstrates a decreasing trend in rate of problem behavior in the presence of trained staff. Initial data during transfer phase demonstrate maintenance of rates of behaviors for 7/12 target behaviors with above 80% interobserver agreement. Maintenance of low rates of problem behavior may be indicative of successful transfer of stimulus control.

This poster examines the effects of a reverse demand fading protocol on the occurrence of the target behaviors of physical aggression towards others and property destruction as well as the rate of skill acquisition for an 11-year old boy with autism. After initial baseline recording of the occurrence target behaviors and baseline testing of the subject's skill set, goals and objectives for behavior reduction and skill acquisition were determined for one school year following the implementation of the demand fading protocol. Demand sets were determined through a hierarchical ranking of the projected yearly goals and objectives. Criteria for subsequent demand set implementation was determined to be 3 consecutive days of target behavior occurrence within a range of 0% to 10% below average baseline percent per target behavior. Rate of skill acquisition was determined by the number of newly mastered targets per week across all skill acquisition programs. Initial results suggested that the implementation of a reverse demand fading protocol may reduce the occurrence of maladaptive behaviors while increasing the rate of skill acquisition.

Food selectivity for children with Asperger's syndrome is a well-documented problem. The present study used forced-choice preference assessment to evaluate the self-determined preference or hypothetical value of food by a 12-year-old male with Asperger's in three settings: (a) prior to exposure to food (perceived food value) and without food present, (b) prior to exposure to food with the food present, and (c) after exposure to food (actual food value) through clinical feeding protocols. Comparison of the pre-exposure preference assessments reveals differential preference rankings in the presence and absence of food. In the presence of food, the participant confirmed pre-exposure preferences of 60% or higher. However, items that received 20% or lower pre-exposure rankings (perceived as nonpreferred) without food present, rated much higher in the presence of the food. Following the pre-exposure preference assessments, the participant was exposed to 12 foods via clinical feeding protocols (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior [DRA] and self-monitoring) for three sessions per day for 4 days. Following the exposure period, the same forced-choice preference assessment was conducted. This presentation will highlight the results of the present study and address key issues pertaining to the perceptions of preference for non-preferred food by children with Asperger's.

The student exhibited inappropriate behaviors including hitting, crying, throwing and swiping materials to the floor whenever he heard the word "Yay" said in a celebratory manner. This indicated a stressful situation for the student and he would engage in escape behaviors until he was removed from the setting. Intervention included a treatment package consisting of teaching appropriate verbal behavior in response to the stimulus "Yay" as well as increasing the number of opportunities to practice this new behavior. Data showed that the number of inappropriate behaviors following the stimulus, "Yay" decreased from 17 instances of hitting and crying (during baseline) to 1 instance of hitting and crying after intervention. The number of opportunities it took during each presentation of the stimulus to engage in the correct behavior decreased from 4 times to 1 time.

A combination of a differential reinforcement of other (DRO) behavior and noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) program was used in a school setting for a client with autism. The DRO program was used to decrease self-stimulatory behaviors by reinforcing the absence of self-stimulatory behaviors. This DRO was based on a fixed time interval that gradually increased as the client was successful at not engaging in self-stimulatory behaviors. The client would receive 1 token for every interval he succeeded and upon earning 3 tokens was given a 1 minute break where he was allowed to engage in the self-stimulatory behaviors. The NCR program was set at a 30-s fixed interval whereby the client received attention every 30 seconds throughout academic activities. For this client, allowing engagement in self-stimulatory behaviors as a form of reinforcement for refraining from engaging in the behavior during academic tasks created a high level of motivation and compliance in the classroom.

This study will illustrate how the use of three teaching methodologies, discrete trial teaching, incidental teaching, and blended interventions can be used to teach children with autism spectrum disorders a variety of skills based on functioning level. The organization has served 24 children, six of whom use discrete trial teaching, six who use incidental teaching, and 12 who receive blended interventions. Three subjects were used to demonstrate the type of skills that can be targeted with each intervention. Subject 1, is a 5-year-old girl diagnosed with Asperger's who receives incidental teaching. Subject 2 is a 5-year-old boy diagnosed with autism. Subject 3 is a 4-year-old boy diagnosed with autism who receives discrete trial teaching. Pre-and post-treatment data was collected on all subjects. The results indicate that subject 1, who was taught to share her experiences and items of interest to her peers, was 33% independent at baseline and 90% post treatment. Subject 2 was taught turn-taking skills and was 7% independent at baseline and 100% independent post treatment. Subject 3 was taught receptive object labels. At baseline he had 10 preferred object labels and post treatment he had 133 functional object labels. The results indicate that all three teaching methodologies are successful in teaching skills to children with autism spectrum disorders.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of presession satiation to matched stimuli on stereotypy and task engagement for 2 students with autism in their classrooms or homes. The study consisted of three phases. First, analogue functional analyses demonstrated that stereotypy was maintained by automatic reinforcement for all participants. Next, a single stimulus preference assessment was conducted with toys matched and unmatched to the hypothesized function of stereotypy. Data were collected on engagement with the stimulus and levels of stereotypy. The matched stimulus was associated with the lowest levels of stereotypy for all participants and was utilized in the third phase of this study. Participants were placed in one of two conditions (presession satiation of matched stimulus or no presession access to the matched stimulus) prior to 15-min group activity sessions. Data were collected on the percentage of 10-s intervals with stereotypy and task engagement during the subsequent 15-min sessions. Preliminary results indicate that the presession satiation condition is associated with lower levels of stereotypy and higher levels of task engagement. Suggestions for future research and implications for clinicians are presented.

Previous research has identified variable effects of proximity on problem behavior and task engagement. For the majority of studies, close adult proximity results in higher levels of task engagement but variable effects on problem behaviors. The effect proximity has on problem behavior seems to depend on the particular students and their behaviors. Close proximity to others has also resulted in increased problem behaviors for some individuals when problem behaviors function as a way to escape from close proximity. The current study looks at the effect of both attention and proximity on the problem behaviors of a kindergarten student with autism. Johnny is in a self-contained special education classroom for children in kindergarten and first grade. He does not have a paraprofessional assigned to him but requires support from classroom staff. Initial results suggest that adult proximity results in higher levels of task engagement and lower levels of problem behaviors. Additional analyses are being conducted to identify the level of attention and proximity he requires to maintain appropriate behaviors in the classroom and continue to make academic progress.

The complexity of the central nervous system is abstract; yet, neuroscientists demonstrate evidence that sensory input evokes physiological changes in the body and at time severe reactions (Ben-Sasson et al., 2008). Although the severe reactions to various external sensory stimuli have been discussed in the literature for decades (Baranek, Wakefield, & David, 2008), there is little to no empirical evidence or systematic interventions to address the supposed sensory problem. Furthermore, those that purport sensory interventions work, typically point to internal, non-observable reasons such as self-regulation. The purpose of this study was to analyze a series of sensory interventions as antecedent interventions, particularly working as abolishing operations (AOs) as noncontingent reinforcement prior to engaging in high demand tasks. An alternating treatment design was utilized to show a functional relation to the identified intervention compared to other interventions (Kennedy, 2005). The researchers trained data coders to collect data who were blind to the study. As evidenced by the differentiated effects in the alternating treatment design, aberrant behaviors were at zero levels and correct responding to academic tasks were near 100% as measured with permanent products.

Gaming systems are increasingly popular among typical and atypical children. There is little research on the potential of the Nintendo Wii gaming system to increase spontaneous vocal interaction between peers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) when engaged in a Wii video game. Because of the obvious high levels of establishing operations to play and engage in the game, it is a possibility that this gaming system will increase levels of spontaneous vocal interactions between peers more so than traditional board games and activities often used in social skills groups. This study looked at the increase in interaction between two students at a private day school when engaged in playing Wii games as opposed to traditional and non-technological games and activities. The results of this study show that there is a need for further research into the use of gaming systems to teach social skills due to the increased establishing operations that are supplied by the games played.

The present study used a multiple probe across participants design to evaluate the effects of social stories on the social behavior of three children (e.g., ages 9 to 10) diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Across all phases, target behavifors (i.e. commands, questions, statements) were measured using 10-min partial interval counts. Stories were read with a high degree of treatment fidelity prior to free play sessions. Participants did not increase their respective target behaviors subsequent to the implementation of the social story. Given the rigor of the research design, evidence of treatment fidelity, and reliability of the data, it is clear that, despite the fact Social Stories have been identified as efficacious, the social story was not effective in improving socially relevant target behaviors. These findings suggest that the field must now identify the conditions under which Social Stories may yield benefit and those under which they do not. Many factors were identified that may have affected the success of the intervention, including the complexity of the social story or the target behaviors, uncontrolled environmental factors and data loss, reinforcement contingencies, and the simultaneous implementation of three Social Stories.

In 1999, music therapy was excluded from the recommended interventions report for young children with autism in New York State. The State cited a lack of defined procedures used in music therapy and absence of efficacy in a controlled study using generally accepted scientific methodology as rationale. In response to that report and subsequent loss of funding for early intervention music therapy, this study was completed. This single-subject alternating treatments design investigated on-task behavior and requesting behavior in six children, ages 2- and 3-years-old and diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, comparing music therapy interventions to play interventions. Prior to the first session, music instrument preference and toy preference assessments were administered. Subjects were videotaped during twelve 30-min one-to-one sessions led by one of the principal investigators. In each session the subject was engaged in 15 minutes of music therapy and 15 minutes of playtime. Playtime was defined as attempts to interact with the child using toys and verbally responding to the child's non-verbal or verbal interactions. Music therapy was defined as using songs, instruments, vocal sounds and movement to interact with the child and musically or verbally responding to the child's verbal or non-verbal participation. The order was randomized and counterbalanced.

Children with a diagnosis of pervasive developmental delay (PDD) often display significant delays and deficits in the area of social communication skills (Ricks & Wing, 1975). Providing visual cues has been shown to increase the production of social communication responses (Sarokoff, Taylor & Poulson, 2001; Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001). However, the ability to produce social responses may not automatically generalize to production of social responding in the natural context. The current study attempted to evaluate if qualitative differences in visual cues (visually enhanced versus plain text) would result in differences in initiation of social responding, and then attempted to establish responding to the cues in the natural setting using prompt fading procedures. A pretest administered before the study confirmed the student could read the text cues independently, and baseline data confirmed that no social initiations were occurring in the natural environment. A multi element design was used to assess social initiations across conditions. The number of initiated targeted social comments, compliments, and questions were compared. The data suggest the visual cues may not automatically result in language production without direct teaching of their use in the targeted setting.

Rapid and reliable functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigms will greatly enhance the efficacy of using fMRI to assess brain responses in individuals prone to inducing motion artifacts during typical fMRI experiments, such as young children and those affected with psychiatric disorders like autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Here we demonstrate robust visual responses in human middle cingulate cortex (MCC) during passive viewing of only 2 images with fMRI in neurotypical adults and children. In the same paradigm, individuals diagnosed with ASD showed diminished responses in the MCC to an image of their own faces (self stimulus) compared to an image of an age- and gender-matched "other" face (other stimulus). These results are consistent with previous work showing that "self" responses are diminished in the cingulate cortex during hyper-scanned social interaction in adolescents diagnosed with ASD. Furthermore, these results demonstrate the feasibility of using rapid 2-stimulus fMRI to assess brain responses in children with and without the diagnosis of ASD.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an intervention package designed to increase teachers' use of the system of least prompts to teach toy play to children with autism. The study took place in an early childhood program serving children with typical development and children with special needs. Three children with autism were selected from across the program as target children. Teachers used the intervention package (i.e., system of least prompts, contingent imitation, child preferences) to increase the play skills of target children. Once children reach criterion on play skills, the teachers systematically embedded other goals (selected from each child's Individualized Education Program [IEP]) into a play context. Play coaches trained teachers and supported implementation of the intervention package. A multiple probe design was used to examine the relation between the intervention package and child target behaviors. Results indicate the intervention package was functionally related to increases in pretend play skills across children. Also, children increased other functional goals when teachers embedded instruction in a play context.

Ned is a 14-year-old boy with autism in the high school. He does not gesture to or reach for desired items. He is not able to communicate his wants and needs verbally and is equipped with the picture exchange communication system (PECS) to get his wants and needs met. However, he is unable to use this system independently. He relies on verbal or physical prompting by others to complete an appropriate social approach. Ned engages in sequential maladaptive behaviors to gain others attention in an attempt to receive a prompt to begin a communication exchange. When these attempts do not elicit a desired action, Ned engages in self-injurious behaviors. The proposed plan is to use a changing criterion design to increase his independent communication, with the initial response priming being a strict differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior (DRI) at a fixed ratio schedule 1:1. Staff will only respond to independent communication exchanges with appropriate social approach behaviors. By doing so Ned's behaviors will gradually decrease in intensity and duration while increase independent communication attempts.

Parent adherence to behavioral strategies is widely researched. Problems with adherence are often the result of a prior history of lack of success and the social stigma of managing behaviors in the community (Allan Warzak, 2000). Parent education has been shown to increase generalization and maintenance of treatment gains (Feldman, Case, Garrick, MacIntyre-Grande, Carnwell, & Sparks, 1992) so the implications of overcoming these challenges to adherence are significant. Research on the use of technology to facilitate independence in individuals with disabilities has been conducted by Satriale, Nepo, Genter, and Glickman (2010); however, little research has been conducted on the use of technology to promote parent independence with behavioral strategies and interventions. The present study was conducted with two separate parents and their child who is diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Both children receive in-home applied behavior analysis (ABA) intervention. A multiple baseline across settings design was used to evaluate whether (a) Bluetooth technology allowed instructors to fade their proximity to the parent, (b) Bluetooth technology was effective in increasing parent adherence with treatment recommendations, (c) generalization of parent teaching skills occurred from trained settings to novel settings, and (d) changes in parent's acquisition of skills were accompanied by decreases in child's maladaptive behaviors. Results indicated that the instructor was able to fade her proximity, parent implementation of skills generalized across settings, and collateral decreases in child maladaptive behaviors were observed. Additionally, the social stigma of being prompted by an instructor with a clipboard was eliminated which resulted in reduced stress in the parent.

Skills of students with developmental disabilities are often considered learned once they have achieved a set mastery criterion. Teachers will often assign an arbitrary criterion to determine whether a student has demonstrated sufficient learning of a skill; however, little research has been done on the maintenance of learned skills of students diagnosed with developmental disabilities. The purpose of the current study was to compare the effects of a high and low mastery criteria on the maintenance of a receptive identification task. Three adolescents attending a private school for individuals diagnosed with developmental disabilities participated in the study. Participant 1 achieved both the low and high criteria as designed. Participant 2 demonstrated the skill at the high criteria only using a modified training intervention. Participant 3 demonstrated the high criteria only. Results indicated that other variables independent of mastery criteria might control how well a student maintains a skill. Implications for future research are also discussed.

When students engage in on-task behavior, they are exposed to increased learning opportunities. This may then help increase students' rates of acquiring, mastering, and maintaining new skills. Completing individual seat work is also an essential skill required of students throughout their educational experience. We used an alternating treatments design to examine on-task behavior of four students with autism during individual mathematics work. Conditions were the added interspersal condition, in which we provided various ratios of easier to more difficult problems, and the control condition, in which only the difficult problems were provided. All problem difficulty levels were matched to students' current abilities based on past mathematics assessments. We measured on-task behavior through momentary time sampling and utilized two observers to reach interobserver agreement. Results showed greater rates of on-task behavior for students in the added interspersal condition. We discuss the possibility that a completed discrete task may serve as a conditioned reinforcer, enhancing the students' ability to complete assignments, master, and maintain skills.

This study tested the effects of multiple exemplar instruction (MEI) on the acquisition of beginning consonant sounds for three sets of pictures, each set representing two letters, on 3 students with a disability using a multiple baseline probe design. First, a pre-experimental probe was taken for Set 3 of letters P and S. Next, the students were taught Set 2 of letters F and G using MEI (i.e. alternating responses: match, point, & intraverbal). Finally, the students were probed again for Set 3 after MEI of Set 2. Data showed an increase of vocal response to the beginning consonant sounds for letters of Set 3 during post multiple exemplar instruction in comparison to both pre-experimental and baseline probe. As a result, the development of the abstraction of stimulus or stimulus generalization through MEI in the emission of novel and untaught beginning consonant sounds for letters P and S of Set 3 was a function of multiple exemplar instruction of other subset letters in Set 1 and Set 2. Multiple exemplar experiences or instruction was an effective procedure and tactic utilized to teach beginning consonant sounds not directly taught.

This study addresses the efficacy of a comprehensive functional analysis and treatment of self-injury and aggression at a private day school. The descriptive assessment indicated that both self-injury and aggression were being maintained by positive reinforcement in the form of attention and negative reinforcement in the form of escape. Due to the severity of the self-injurious behavior, the decision was made to assess this behavior. Functional analysis results showed higher rates of self-injury during the escape condition. While the functional analysis did not specifically address aggression, data showed that aggression also occurred at a higher rate during the escape condition. Treatment was implemented across two therapists and two settings. The systematic use of functional communication training (FCT), 3-step prompting, and differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior (DNRA) where selected based on the functional analysis outcome. Treatment analysis results indicated the treatment package reduced self-injury and aggression across both therapists and settings.

Individuals with autism of all ages demonstrate sensory processing difficulties; however there is limited empirical support for sensory-based interventions. This study was conducted to examine the effect of sensory-based interventions on correct responding for expressive identification tasks among five elementary-age students with autism. A single-case alternating treatments design was used for analysis and functional relations were apparent for 2 participants. A positive relation between one sensory activity and correct responses was evident for a third student, but his rate of skill acquisition was too slow to verify a functional relation during the study. Results were undifferentiated for 2 students; one reached mastery criteria with both sensory-based interventions, while one made only modest improvement in expressive identification. In contrast to the results of the visual analysis, outcomes of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) were used to conclude that the sensory-based interventions did not predict growth, even though all of the students made significant gains during the study. Age and IQ were the only significant predictors of growth, with older students and those with higher IQs acquiring more skills. Although not statistically significant, Childhood Autism Rating Scale scores may have practical significance. Implications for mixed-modality research and applied practice are discussed.

This study evaluated whether children with disabilities acquired appropriate social behaviors via observational learning when peers modeled these skills during small group direct instruction. A multiple probe across behaviors design was used, and was replicated across participants. Three preschoolers with disabilities (one with Down's syndrome and two with autism spectrum disorders) were taught to name stimuli, using progressive time delay, in a small group with two typically-developing peers. Prior to the group sessions, peers were taught to share rewards given for correct responding and to say thank you when a peer shared. Results from Participant 1 showed the participant (a) acquired targeted academic behaviors, (b) began sharing and saying thank you during instructional sessions, and (c) generalized social skills to generalization settings designed to resemble classroom activities. Two additional participants with autism spectrum disorders have completed the first and second tiers of instruction, respectively. Their data suggest children with autism may also acquire and generalize academic and peer-modeled social skills during small group instruction. Together, these results suggest small group direct instruction is an effective context for using peer modeling of social skills to increase appropriate social behavior.

This study looked at intervention effects on the number of student programs run by staff members in a school for students with autism. The participants were four direct care staff working in a self-contained classroom with seven students ranging between 12-14-years-old. Each student had an Individualized Education Plan and a set number of academic programs. Opportunities to run each program were counted as one opportunity per program per day. Interventions to increase the percent of programs run were implemented consecutively and additively. These interventions included a checklist, the presentation of graphs to staff members, goal setting, individual meetings with staff members regarding the students' progress, and written feedback. The data showed that the introduction of the checklist and the presentation of graphs resulted in a significant increase over baseline. Over time the data in this condition showed a decreasing trend though it did not return to baseline levels. The addition of individual meetings, written feedback, and goal setting resulted in another increase in the percent of programs run that was maintained for 14 weeks.

Research suggests that acquisition of responses under multiple stimulus control (e.g., conditional discriminations) is facilitated with the introduction of a differential observing response (DOR; Dube & McIlvane, 1999). Axe (2008) further speculated that some instances of intraverbal responding may be associated with delayed acquisition because they require simultaneous discrimination of multiple verbal stimuli. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of a differential observing response (i.e., repeating the question) on accuracy of intraverbal responding with two neurotypical preschool children. The effects of the DOR were evaluated in a reversal design. Interobserver agreement was assessed for 56% of sessions with the one participant completed to date (Jessica) and was 100%. Results for Jessica suggest that (a) accuracy of performance increased when the therapist prompted a DOR, (b) the DOR did not appear to maintain in the absence of therapist prompts, and (c) frequency and immediacy of errors following discontinuation of prompts suggest the participant did not continue to engage in the DOR covertly. Based on these findings, prompted DORs may represent an effective, if temporary, aid to intraverbal instruction for neurotypical preschool children.