Association for Behavior Analysis International

To what a dog attends when responding to verbal cues has been a focus of considerable research. Less research, however, has examined factors specific to voice quality or masking of the face. Prior research shows that changes to phonetic pronunciation of a behavioral cue significantly decreases response accuracy in dogs. Our lab has also shown that non-occluded versus covered faces improves cue response accuracy. The present study examined how canines responded to obedience cues when a recorded or human voice delivered the cue. Dogs were also exposed to varying facial occlusions and gestural cue conditions. Results show that a synthetic voice cue increased latency and decreased accuracy of responding, particularly when paired with facial obstruction and a lack of a gestural cue. Further, the obstruction of the full face or the eyes reduced accuracy and increased latency more than mouth coverings regardless of type of voice cue. These data are highly relevant during the pandemic-mandated mask wearing for handlers and trainers. The data suggest that mask wearing is not deleterious to cue responding in dogs. However, recorded human voice is not perceived as identical to an actual human voice by trained dogs.

Animal labs can offer students of behavior analysis a unique, hands-on learning experiences. However, COVID-19 restrictions - while put in place to protect both human and animal health - have presented challenges to traditional brick-and-mortar lab classes. We conducted a pilot study to evaluate the use of a virtual animal behavior research clinic as a method to teach undergraduate students humane training and education techniques based on behavior analytic principles with companion animal dogs and cats remotely. Training sessions included instruction, modeling, and rehearsal for modules on habituation, Pavlovian conditioning, preference assessments and reinforcer assessments, matching law, shaping, and environmental enrichment techniques. Future directions to evaluate the efficacy of the virtual clinic on student learning outcomes and social validity are needed and will also be discussed.

Several studies have looked at ways to mitigate resurgence of a target behavior by manipulating dimensions of reinforcement for an alternative behavior. To date, only one study has examined differences in resurgence following different magnitudes of reinforcement for the alternative behavior, and only one study has addressed resurgence in an academic setting. The current study evaluated resurgence of a target academic response when all responses were placed on extinction subsequent to a phase of high- or low-magnitude reinforcement for an alternative response. Four fourth-grade students without a diagnosis participated and their rate of problem completion was measured across sessions. In Phase 1, students were reinforced for completing addition problems. In Phase 2, students were reinforced for completing subtraction problems, but not addition problems. Finally in Phase 3A/3B, reinforcement was not provided for any response (i.e., extinction). In Phase 3A, extinction was not signaled and resurgence was only observed in 3 of the 4 students. In Phase 3B, extinction was signaled and resurgence of the target response occurred for all four participants, with variable levels across the high- and low-magnitude conditions. Implications and directions for future research will be discussed.

Meaningful stimuli are, by definition, pre-experimentally related to other stimuli. Some authors have suggested that training relations between a meaningful stimulus and a member of an equivalence class could produce the merge of the experimental class with a pre-experimentally established class. Here, two experiments compared the effects of meaningful and meaningless words on the merger of classes. In both experiments, adults were trained on AB and AC relations for the emergence of three 3-member equivalence classes with abstract stimuli. Then, they were trained on DA relations and tested for the inclusion of D and a set of nine meaning-related pictures in the class. In Experiment 1 (N = 22), D1 and D2 were meaningful written words, and D3 was a written pseudo word. In Experiment 2 (N = 13), for two groups, D1, D2, and D3 were meaningful words; for another group, D1, D2, and D3 were meaningless words. In both experiments, only meaningful words produced the merger of the ABC and the meaning-related stimulus classes. These results support the notion that meaningful stimuli are members of pre-experimental classes and that using meaningful-stimulus in equivalence tasks can produce the merge of the experimental and the extra-experimental classes.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate if the behavioral processes of probability and social discounting could predict people’s compliance with the protective measures recommended during the COVID-19 pandemic. A sample of 116 adults living in Brazil completed an online survey composed of a probability discounting questionnaire (PDQ), a social discounting questionnaire (SDQ), and a 10-question assessment of how often they complied with the health authorities’ recommendations (e.g., wash the hands frequently, practice social distancing, stay at home as much as possible, wear a mask when in public). Only the participants who showed higher or lowered compliance with the protective measures were included in the final analyses. Results revealed that the PDQ and SDQ responses could predict people’s compliance with the protective measures recommended by the health authorities. Participants who showed low compliancewere more likely to perform risk choices in the PDQ than high-compliant ones. To a lesser extent, participants who showed high compliance were more prone to present cooperative choices in the SDQ, compared to low-compliant participants. These results suggest that probability and social discounting processes can play an essential role in the self-protective and cooperative decisions people made during a global health emergency, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Six pigeons pecked on the food key to receive reinforcers on a two-component mixed schedule (VI 30 s/EXT), or on the observing key to change the mixed schedule to a multiple schedule by sometimes producing an observing stimulus (S+/S-) that corresponded to the current component in effect. Components alternated irregularly with variable durations and responses within the final 5 s of an EXT component extended the said component. Across conditions we manipulated the duration of the observing stimulus (3.25, 7.5, 15, 30 s). As observing-stimulus duration increased, percentage of session time spent as a multiple schedule increased and fewer observing stimuli were produced. What remained invariant across conditions was the degree of differential responding during the mixed stimulus. Number of successive food-key responses since offset of observing stimuli showed that observing stimuli (S+/S-) produced differential responding on the food key during the mixed stimulus. Consequently, producing observing stimuli resulted in better discrimination during the mixed stimulus compared to a mixed schedule without such an opportunity. These findings show that observing stimuli were produced to an extent that affords greater discrimination of an uncertain environment regardless of the duration of these observing stimuli.

Associating meaningless trigrams (CS) with a positively valenced attribute (US) may influence appetite-associated motivational systems, such as increased saliva production, regardless of whether the former (CS-US) relation is consciously tractable. We test this claim in the present study, where we expose three groups of Brazilian undergraduates (N = 69) to a subliminal conditioning protocol. The procedure involved presenting eating-related activities (CS) or their scrambled counterparts (non-CS) at subliminal visual thresholds, followed by visible positive or neutral attributes (US). A free-selection visibility check confirmed that no participant identified the subliminal stimuli during the conditioning task. For the group who associated eating activities with the positive US, saliva production increased significantly as predicted. Outcomes across explicit and implicit evaluations were statistically inconclusive, but Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulations suggested conditioning effects were somewhat likely. Reliable saliva augmentation, coupled with inconclusive evaluation outcomes, illustrates how affective CS-US information can influence motivational responses with minimal deliberative influence.

The present study was designed to determine whether the repeated reversal procedure that has been used to demonstrate the formation of functional classes in pigeons and sea lions could be adapted for rats using olfactory stimuli. Rats were exposed to simple discrimination training with responding reinforced on an FI 5-s schedule for six odors (Set 1 positive) and extinction for a different set of six odors (Set 2 negative). When responding was well differentiated, the discriminations were reversed (i.e., Set 2 positive, Set 1 negative). Discrimination reversals were repeatedly performed and performances were on the initial session of a reversal were analyzed to determine whether was contacting the reversed contingencies with some set members would transfer without direct training to other set members. We found transfer in most rats tested, but mainly after exposure to the changed contingencies with five of the set members. These data provide some of the first evidence of functional class formation in rats.

The latency-based functional analysis (FA) is a hypothesis testing strategy used to inform effective function-based interventions for students who engage in challenging behavior (Lambert et al., 2017). Despite the promise of interventions informed by this experimental analysis, some students—especially those with emotional/behavioral disorders—respond in unexpected ways. For example, the establishing operations presented during functional communication training may elicit challenging behaviors as part of a stress response or evoke them in the form of countercontrol. These unanticipated responses may signal intervention procedures are aversive to the student, indicating a need to adapt procedures to prioritize student autonomy and safety. One such modification is the Enhanced Choice Model (ECM; Rajaraman et al., 2018), where concurrently available alternatives to participating in intervention sessions are programmed. We implemented a latency-based FA and subsequent function-based intervention with an elementary student who received special education services under an emotional disturbance label. When initial functional communication training with isolated contingencies failed to reduce rates of challenging behavior, we implemented skill-based treatment (Hanley et al., 2014) within an ECM. Outcomes suggest, with a moderate degree of confidence, that the adapted intervention successfully increased the student’s tolerance for stressful classroom conditions.

A growing body of evidence indicates systematic practice with math fact families efficiently and effectively improves fluency. The present investigation tested the effects of a fluency building intervention on math facts performance with four elementary school students participating in multi-tiered systems of support. The researchers employed a multiple baseline design across three sets of fact families. Intervention components consisted of modeling the fact family followed by three, one-minute practice trials with immediate feedback delivered between each timing. The students received up to a ten-day window of intervention on one set of fact families before moving to the next set. Results suggest a significant increase in digits correct per minute and a decrease in digits incorrect per minute. Study outcomes also suggest that fluency instruction focusing on the inverse relationship between addition and subtraction operations can plausibly serve as a viable alternative to instruction with isolated and unrelated math facts. Discussion points on stimulus equivalence as well as implications for practitioners and recommendations for future research will be shared.

This literature review was conducted to synthesize the research studies that evaluated point of view video modeling and analyze the behavioral, academic, and social outcomes it had on students with autism. Video modeling has been established through research as a robust intervention with positive effects across disabilities to teach behavioral, academic, functional, social, and life skills. Methods: A literature search was conducted using the online databases ERIC and APA PsychInfo. The Boolean search string: video technology AND modeling AND point of view AND autism was used. The titles and abstracts of the articles were reviewed to identify relevance and, in order to be included in the review, studies had to meet the following criteria: (a) independent variable is POV video modeling, (b) study participants are individuals with autism, and (c) study was conducted using a single-subject research design. Results: Twenty studies met the criteria for this review. Analysis of these studies indicate a functional relation between POV video modeling and the skills and behaviors the researchers were targeting. Implications: This systematic review provides evidence that point-of-view video modeling has positive effects when used to teach play, social skills, vocational tasks, letter writing, mathematics, and transition related tasks.

We tested the effects of implementing a CABAS® based educational model for 12 adolescents and young adults, aged 13 to 21, all enrolled in a learning and research centre in Italy. We collected monthly data on the total number of Learn Units, on the learning objectives achieved and on the number of Learn Units to Criterion by each participant. Data were discussed based on graphical analysis and suggested that CABAS® can be an effective tactic for the individualized education of our Participants. Also, the model appeared to successfully adapt to the Italian welfare system, and could provide Public Services leaders with easy-to-read data on the efficiency of evidence-based treatments for adolescents and young adults. Further research should compare different treatment intensity packages and add norm-based data. This pilot project was aimed to measure treatment effectiveness and efficiency using Learn Units, with the purpose of sharing the results with the Italian Health Department and stakeholders.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a widely accepted science in which treatment for problem behavior reduction and skill acquisition interventions has been developed for learners diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Discrete Trial Training (DTT) is an effective teaching method within ABA that presents teaching targets in a rapid instructional format until a mastery criterion is met (Smith, 2001). Clinicians and researchers select instructional format and mastery criterion when designing the DTT protocol for their clients with ASD. Modifications in the instructional format present ratios of mastered teaching targets relative to targets in acquisition. Furthermore, the specified mastery criterion demonstrates when a skill is learned to sufficiency. The interaction of teaching format and mastery criteria options may impact the efficient acquisition and maintenance of the novel skills. The purpose of this review was to systematically categorize and evaluate instructional format and mastery criteria within a discrete trial teaching procedure for learners with developmental disabilities. The review included 15 studies organized into the following categories: Mass trial, interspersed trial, and distributed trial, as well as mastery criteria. Task interspersal (75% of those that compared instructional format) and an 80% mastery criterion correct across 3 days or sessions (80% of those that compared mastery criteria) were the most commonly identified. However, there was extreme variability across studies and future research is needed to allow clinicians to form a rationale for their treatment modification selections. Clinical implications and future directions for research are discussed.

Today, gaining competitive employment often requires searching for jobs and completing applications online, which may be a barrier for older, chronically unemployed adults with heroin addiction. In contrast, college students in the job market are presumed to be skilled with computers. To compare these populations, we measured digital literacy using interactive, online assessments (https://digitalliteracyassessment.org). Participants were 31 adults with chronic unemployment and heroin addiction (Treatment) and 115 college students enrolled in introductory computer science courses as part of their general education program (Control). Treatment participants had low median scores in assessments of Microsoft Word (52% vs. Control=83%), Microsoft PowerPoint (37% vs. Control=73%), and information literacy (49% vs. Control=67%). Although Control participants had higher median scores than Treatment participants in all domains, scores were within 10 percentage points in Social Media (difference=2.8%), Computer Basics (difference=7%), and E-mail (difference=9.2%). Employment support in addiction treatment should target computer skills to address this potential barrier to employment.

Educational policies over the past two decades have prioritized integrating students with disabilities into the general education setting. With this shift, the demographics of the general education setting have become more diverse, requiring teachers to implement a variety of behavioral and academic interventions to support the varying needs of individual students. To support teachers and students, interventions that are effective, while still socially valid, must be identified. Self-monitoring interventions have widely been used to address behavioral and academic concerns across a variety of educational and clinical settings and across a variety of disabilities. However, limited studies have examined the use of self-monitoring in the inclusive setting. Previous research would suggest that general education classroom teachers would benefit from implementing self-monitoring based intervention packages. Additionally, interventions capable of intervening on a group of students at one time, thereby reducing effort and oversight on the part of the teacher, are more favorable and socially valid. The combined use of a student-directed intervention (such as self-monitoring) and a group-based intervention (such as a group contingency) could have a significant impact on the performance of target and non-target students within a general education classroom. This study analyzes previous use of self-monitoring interventions, the possible implications of these interventions on the general education classroom setting, and makes suggestions for future research.

Brief Acceptance and Commitment Training (ACT) exercises focusing on values clarification and committed action were delivered to post-master’s participants qualified to sit for the Board Certified Behavior Analyst exam in a virtual setting during a 6-week test preparation class by RogueABA. The current study was an extension of Palilunas et al. (2018) who conducted a randomized controlled trial and delivered the same exercises to master’s levels students in a university setting. The current study differed in that a single-subject experimental design was utilized, along with differing dependent variables. Following exposure to ACT exercises, there was an increase in psychological flexibility as indicated by results by the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire 2 (AAQ-2); however, there was no clear evidence of a functional relation between these ACT exercises and several overt dependent variables. It was noteworthy that Group One, who gained more psychological flexibility as measured in an AAQ-2 self-report, completed an increased percentage of asynchronous online modules immediately following exposure ACT exercises. This was evident in a withdrawal design. However, this effect was not replicated for Groups Two and Three. Furthermore, the current study serves as a proof of concept in which automated data collection methods can be utilized to measure socially significant public behaviors in addition to self-reports that are commonly used in contextual behavior science research.

Special education programming in public schools relies heavily on the use of paraprofessionals to support instructional, behavioral, and social learning for students with disabilities (SWDs), however, paraprofessionals often lack formal training in the use of evidence-based practices (EBP). Traditional lecture-style methods of professional development for school-based staff are neither cost or time-efficient, nor effective at producing long-term changes in instructional behaviors employed by staff in the classroom. Research has demonstrated that paraprofessional-level practitioners can learn to use high levels of implementation fidelity of EBPs with SWDs when provided experiential training such as coaching. We conducted a systematic and quality review of literature on the use of coaching to train paraprofessionals to implement interventions for SWDs. We reviewed 174 full-text articles for inclusion and evaluated the methodological rigor of the research. Contextual variables, including trainer and participant characteristics, target skills, and implementation fidelity were synthesized to provide a summary of strengths and gaps in the evidence. Recommendations for practice and future research will be discussed.

The increased need for Applied Behavior Analysis services, especially in autism treatment, has resulted in behavior analysts working with client populations, in settings, and addressing behaviors of concern that they were not explicitly trained to address. It is essential that our field provide guidance for how behavior analysts can become competent in new practice areas. However, the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s Professional and Ethical Compliance Code provides limited guidance in this area. Brodhead et al. (2018) has made recommendations for how behavior analysts can self-evaluate and expand their own scope of competence. This poster will expand on the work of Brodhead et al. (2018) to suggest a framework of specific practices to expand one’s scope of competence. This framework will include both technical skills as well as other important repertoires including clinical decision-making, problem solving, rapport building, and culturally responsive practice. Implications for graduate training and professional development will be discussed.

This presentation will report a review of single-case studies across cultures to summarize the characteristics of caregiver involvement in communication interventions for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) families of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual/developmental disability (IDD) for recommendations on culturally responsive practices. Caregiver involvement can improve communication skills in CLD individuals with ASD and IDD; however, there is a need to provide culturally and linguistically appropriate support to CLD caregivers during caregiver involvement. Limitations and implications for future research and practice will be addressed.

The importance of the distant provision of psychological and behavioral interventions is crucial during COVID-19 pandemic. This study explores psychologists’ and behavior analysts’ attitudes toward using telehealth-based ABA services to support individuals with disabilities in Saudi Arabia. The research addresses a two-fold problem? inadequate corroborated empirical evidence concerning the effectiveness of using telehealth models to provide individuals with disabilities with ABA services and a lack of research on practitioners’ attitudes toward employing telehealth-based ABA services. A quantitative survey method informed the study. The researcher used 20 survey questions to collect quantitative data from 104 participants about their general perceptions toward using telehealth-based ABA services to support individuals with disabilities. The researcher used descriptive, correlational, and statistical analyses to analyze the data. The results showed that most of the surveyed people (53%) stated that they were aware of the concept of telehealth in the field of applied behavioral analysis. Moreover, the majority of respondents expressed positive attitudes toward telehealth-based ABA services in terms of utility, willingness to provide the facilities, and potential benefits during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results also indicated that most of the respondents (88%) are willing to provide telehealth services if an adequate training is provided. On the other hand, (43%) of the participants disagree with the statement that telehealth provides the same benefits as the direct healthcare services. Keywords: Telehealth, applied behavior analysis, behavior analytic interventions, individuals with disabilities, COVID-19 pandemic, telehealth-based ABA services

This study wanted to determine if the addition of novel stimuli in the form of costume pieces (primarily novelty hats) would increase student engagement in pre-recorded lectures for an asynchronous masters level course. When comparing the results between a control and an experimental group, the first experimental test results showed better outcomes including a decreased range of scores between the lowest score and highest score across group participants and an increased low score on the exam. Following the first experimental test, however, scores leveled out to scores similar to baseline and the control groups, suggesting either satiation (i.e., wearing off of the effect) or anticipation of the procedure, resulting in no effect. Limitations and future research considerations are also discussed.

A series of studies has demonstrated that video modeling is effective to train staff to conduct stimulus preference assessments. However, only a few studies have conducted the evaluation of content validity of the video presented to participants. The purpose of this study was to produce a video to teach the implementation of paired-stimulus preference assessment, and evaluate its content validy. Initially, a task analysis was carried out to identify the necessary steps to a correct implementation of a paired-stimulus preference assessment. Then, we produced a video containing a written description of each one of steps identified through the task analysis, followed by a depiction of a full assessment. Finally, six professionals with different areas of expertise viewed the video and answered a questionnaire evaluating its content. They indicated that the video had all the steps necessary to conduct the assessment, and suggested a few modifications which were made to improve the comprehensibility of the information presented in the video. Considering that the report of the professionals is not enough to prove the effectiveness of the video, it is necessary to evaluate its effects on the implementation of a paired-stimulus preference assessment.

Scientific evidence clearly supports the existence of climate change, attributes this change largely to human behaviour, and warns that these changes will produce rapid and potentially catastrophic changes (Houmanfar, & Mattaini, 2015, Lehman & Geller, 2004; Luke, Roose, Rakos, & Mattaini, 2017; Thompson, 2010). Research has provided insight into changing individual’s pro-environmental choices using both consequence and antecedent strategies (Bacon & Krpan, 2018; Wansink & Love, 2014; Kongsbac et al., 2015; Baca-Motes, Brown, Gneezy, Keenan, & Nelson, 2012; Arieley, Bracha, & Meier, 2009). One area of research involves nudges, which are a collection of tools which make purposeful changes in the choice architecture and influence the behaviour of individuals (Lehner, Mont, & Heiskanen, 2015). In reviewing the literature, there are at least eight strategies that can be employed to increase the probability that people will engage in pro-environmental behaviours. These strategies can be implemented at the individual, community and governmental levels to move societies towards a sustainable and livable future.

The education of values as competencies for life is one of the current challenges of the school. The values can be analyzed as a psychological phenomenon, based on the behavior of an individual in relation to the functional changes of the individual or object before whom he behaves. The conditional relationships are analyzed based on the taxonomy proposed by Ribes (2018). An experimental design with Baseline, Intervention Phase and Follow-up Phase was used. Twelve preschoolers from a Kindergarten in the city of Xalapa, Veracruz participated. The study suggests that the performance of children's rights during the intervention phase was high on average in the three behaviors under study in the five functional levels: higher in promoting the “common good” and “tolerance” and a little lower in “equality between people”. However, in the follow-up phase, under natural conditions, the level of functional aptitude was identified more frequently in the first levels of functional aptitude; higher in “tolerance”, then in "equality between people" and lower in promotion of “the common good”. The results suggest that children's rights are learned and performing as life practices and that they can be studied from the Analysis of Behavior Theory.

Binge drinking is prevalent among college students. Students who count drinks and set limits are less likely to binge drink; however, these tactics require knowledge of standard servings. Unfortunately, most students are unable to identify or pour standard servings of alcohol. Although Behavioral Skills Training (BST) has been used to teach this skill, researchers have not evaluated the generality of this skill across different types of cups and across time. We used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design to examine whether students (N=6) can acquire the skill and whether this skill generalized across untrained cups and a 5 -10 day follow-up. After receiving BST, most participants poured accurately into the trained cup and into one of the untrained cups. At follow-up, three participants poured accurately into all cups without needing additional BST. Two participants poured accurately into all cups after an additional round of BST for one cup. One participant continued to pour inaccurately. Because most participants poured accurately into at least one untrained cup after receiving BST, this suggests that some skill generalization and maintenance occurred. The time investment of BST may be worthwhile, and college administrators may want to incorporate BST into college alcohol education courses.

This research involves a critique of the concept of childhood “pathologization” that has been given greater importance, mainly due to the increase in children diagnosed with disorders that did not exist before, which has given rise to a catalog of treatments that include behavioral management therapies on occasions accompanied by drugs, losing sight of the individuality of the minor and only attending to a clinical diagnosis. In the present study, the effect of a behavioral change program was designed, applied, and evaluated through Contingency Analysis to observe human behavior, whether it is valued as problematic or not. This research was carried out using an experimental ABC design in two primary school children, referred for presenting behaviors valued as "problem behaviors". The interventions were carried out in three phases: Analysis, application, and follow-up. The analysis shows that morphologically similar behaviors, defined by the teacher, should be addressed differently in each one, given their circumstances, and that approach does not depend on a diagnosis. The application phase consisted of the use of behavior modification techniques adjusted to each context. The results show a decrease of problems behaviors on intervention and follow-up phases. The discussion is based on Behavior Analysis Theory.

Although Acceptance and Commitment therapy or Training (ACT) derives from behavior analytic principles, ACT has only recently become popular amongst behavior analysts. Although an incredibly large body of research already exist, supporting its utility to produce meaningful behavior change, most of the studies are conducted outside behavior analytic settings. The current project examines the state of ACT research conducted within the field of behavior analysis. Preliminary results suggest that the majority of empirical research conducted on ACT within behavior analytic journals (N = 36) has not been conducted by behavior analysts (n = 9). The current study also examines participant demographics, types experimental designs used, dependent variables, and the types of interventions implemented. Our brief review suggests that more empirical research is needed to examine the direct effect of ACT among diverse clinical populations typically served by behavior analysts.

Moreso than in most medical problems and health crisis situations, leaders of many and diverse disciplines repeatedly cite “changes in behavior” as the mainstay of addressing the challenges of the Covid 19 pandemic. Given the lack of preventative, protective, and treatment modalities, the importance of behavior and habit change by individuals and society becomes the most prominent “tool in the box,” and allows for empowerment of individuals, familys, organizations, and societies. This presentation highlights ways in which behavioral principles and techniques, especially when integrated with relevant principles of medicine and public health, can, and need to, be applied by clinicians and non clinicians to promote desired behaviors/habits including mask/PPE use (and techniques) and practicing social distancing,as well as remembering to NOT do many things we habitually do like shaking hands and holiday family gatherings. It applies as well to "private" behaviors of attitudes, opinions, knowledge (reality of the illness, safety of vaccines). The current pandemic serves as yet another opportunity for those most skilled in the principles and techniques of the management of behavior and development of habits to showcase the power of the discipline in making substantive desirable impacts on many phases of the Covid 19 pandemic, and the people affected by it.

Parental distress and coercive parent-child interactions are of major issues in our society. Cultural biases, stigma, and language barriers keep Asian-American parents and children away from mental and behavioral services. Behavior parent training as part of applied behavior analysis services is usually available to parents and children if their child has a diagnosis, but not for parents of children without diagnoses. Research in the area of parent-child interactions suggests a combination of behavior parent training and acceptance and commitment training as an effective preventative intervention alleviates parental distress and fosters positive parent-child interactions. However, limited research is available that examined the effectiveness of preventative acceptance and commitment training-based interventions for this population. Thus, the current study evaluated the effects of the individual acceptance and commitment training Matrix online training for Japanese-speaking distressed parents in the United States, using a single-subject design. Specific dependent variables measured were value-driven behaviors, parental engagement in treatment, parental distress, and psychological flexibility. The results revealed that the acceptance and commitment training Matrix training was effective in improving all four dependent variables. Parents reported that the training was culturally sensitive, effective, and appropriate in the social validity questionnaire.

Healthy eating is essential in combating diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and high blood pressure. Unfortunately, healthy eating has decreased with the decline of home-cooking and increased consumption of convenience foods. Research shows some indication that cooking interventions that contain social contingencies are more likely to have results that maintain and generalize to the home versus those that do not. The current study targeted meal preparation in the homes of college students utilizing an interdependent group contingency. 18 participants were divided into three groups, added to a social media group page, and required to post about their home cooking. The group contingency included a goal where all members of the group had to increase their number of weekly meals prepared in the home in order for all members of the group to receive monetary reinforcement. Results indicated that while the intervention initially increased meal preparation, these increases quickly declined. This is most likely due to group members failing to meet goal and not contacting reinforcement. However, further research is needed to determine if other group contingencies or goal levels may be more successful and utilizing social media groups may still have utility as it allows remote delivery of social consequences.

Physical inactivity continues to be a national health concern contributing to increased risk for mental and physical health problems in childhood (Reiner et al., 2013; Väistö et al., 2014). Environmental factors such as decreased activity and increased sedentary routine (i.e., video gaming and television watching) as well as social influence regarding physical activity among children are thought to contribute to and maintain the problematic unhealthy lifestyle trends (McKenzie et al., 1997; Väistö et al., 2014). Introduction to physical activity habits at a young age can help to promote beneficial lifelong health behaviors. Obesity prevention and physical activity intervention programs are often costly and require extensive resources to run (Chen & Wilkosz, 2014; Rivera et al., 2016). Recent advances in mobile technology, such as the Fitbit,® can potentially offer a cost-effective solution to increasing physical activity levels among children. Few research studies have been published on the effectiveness of Fitbit® use among young children. Even fewer studies have examined the impact that social influence, such as gamification or challenge features, have on the user’s level of physical activity. The current study was aimed at determining: the effectiveness of the Fitbit® with children and the impact of social influences on physical activity. Overall, it was found that the Fitbit® alone and when using its 24-hr challenge feature were ineffective at increasing step counts to recommended levels. Similarly, adding the goal, for two out of the three dyads, was ineffective at increasing step counts, and the one dyad who did respond to this component was found to have confounded data due to learning about the upcoming rewards phase. The addition of tangible rewards was only found to increase steps for two of the four participants who received them.

Tummy time is an activity for infants to practice their early motor skills. Although most pediatricians recommend tummy time, parents may avoid the procedures due to infant discomfort during this period. The present study investigated whether a preferred item increased head elevation and decrease negative vocalizations during tummy time with two typically developing infants. We compared more-preferred items identified using preference assessments to that of maternal attention. In addition, we evaluated social acceptability of the two procedures with the mothers in two ways. First, the mothers were given the direct opportunity to select which tummy time treatment they would like to implement in a concurrent chains design. Second, the mothers completed social validity questionnaires regarding their personal experiences. We found that more-preferred items and mother’s attention were effective at increasing head elevation and decreasing negative vocalizations during tummy time for both infants; however, the caregivers preferred the treatment including the more-preferred items.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of different diabetes diagnoses on sharing practices. Diabetes is a family of diagnoses that involves a dysfunction of the pancreas and impacted insulin levels. Different forms of diabetes include type 1 diabetes, an autoimmune condition, type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes, and prediabetes. Diabetes is a health condition that may incur certain stigma and bias, and this may impact social interaction. Through this study, data collection was performed in order to surmise if there is a difference in sharing practices concerning diabetes diagnoses. It was hypothesized that sharing practices would be impacted by the types of diabetes diagnosis, versus control, in a negative manner. Using a between subject model, social discounting was tested at different social distances within each different group. The participants, university students, were divided into four different groups correlating to type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, prediabetes, and control. Data was collected and analyzed. Through the use of different statistical analyses including non-parametric statistics, it was seen that there may be a difference between sharing for diabetes and non-diabetic individuals with participants trending towards being more willing to share with individuals diagnosed with diabetes.

Before the COVID19 pandemic, 20% of the children population was already at risk of showing problem behaviors associated with parents´ raising behaviors. Furthermore, we can study behavioral mechanisms through understanding behavioral learning principles underlying children´s choice of behaving. This paper describes the relationship between children´s behavior function and discounting of reinforcement in specific contexts as a pilot study. Thirteen scholar children, between 6 and 8 years old (M= 7; 69% were girls) took part in this preliminary study. The parents´ mean age was 34 years old (SD=6.01), 92% were women, and 100% were in confinement because of the COVID-19. We used the Children´s behavior inventory, the Alabama Questionnaire, the Probability of Compliance Occurrence Questionnaire, a Caregivers-children´s Observational System, and the Rabbat software version 2.0 (Escobar et al., 2020). We used a within-subject design to get the baseline thorough functional analysis situations (e.g., Waiting to receive reinforcement) and to assess the subjective value of reinforcement through delay, probability, and effort discounting tasks. We used Zoom®, Meet®, Visual Basic 10 Express®, and Google Forms® platforms, and accomplishing APA (2013) ethical guidelines. Mainly, results from the 104 behavioral patterns from the behavior´s functional analysis and the 780 trials of discounting task (260 temporal, 260 probability, and 260 effort discounting task) suggested children´s waiting to receive reinforcement negatively associated with opposition defiant, and hyperactivity behavior; both associated to effort and probability discounting (respectively). Furthermore, data indicated a generality of the children´s context choice effect over reinforcement devaluation when used the virtual rewards in computational environments and how different mechanisms of choice behavior resulted from the cost associated with the delivery of prizes. We have initiated to study the relationship between these subjective values of reinforcement, functional analysis of behavior, and choice procedures explaining children´s behaviors.

Recommendations for pacifier use include those that encourage the use of a pacifier for infants up to 12 months of age ("Pacifiers (soothers): A users guide for parents", 2003). Mauch, Scott, Magarey, & Daniels (2012) reported that 79% of first-time mothers followed these recommendations and introduced a pacifier to their first-born infants. Cited advantages of pacifier use include the documented decrease in risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), the decreased risks of future tooth development issues when compared with thumb sucking, as well as the ability to satisfy an infant’s instinct to suckle ("Pacifiers (soothers): A users guide for parents", 2003). Some of the disadvantages of pacifier use include the decreased duration of breastfeeding, future impact on teeth development, and delayed vocal exploration and language development (Sexton & Natale, 2009). Average mouthing behavior frequency, type, and duration has been reported as an under researched area of importance for children under 5 years of age (Tulve, Suggs, McCurdy, Cohen-Hubal, & Moya, 2002). Research studies cite both advantages and disadvantages to mouthing behavior. Many of the advantages include exploration of the environment (Lowsky, 2015), while many disadvantages relate to the increase exposure risk to toxins (Tulve et al., 2002). Due to the high rate of pacifier use in infants, the implications on mouthing behavior should be explored. This study seeks to begin understanding the relationship between mouthing behavior and pacifier use. A 14-question survey was developed to assess correlations. The surveys were distributed to parents who attended an Early Intervention Christmas party in York/Adams Pennsylvania. Initial findings suggest a relationship between pacifier use and mouthing occurrence.

The main goal of applied behavior analysis (ABA)is understanding behavior through the empirical application of the principles of respondent and operant conditioning to elicit a change in behavior which holds a social significance. In order to achieve its fundamental goals, behavior analysts require the aid of the caregivers in order to provide a more consistent implementation of ABA. While a great part of the therapy concerns itself with teaching and shaping skills, that is only half of the work. ABA provides great emphasis in the concept of generalization, which is the goal for these individuals to not only learn the skill but be able to generalize the concepts to others in their everyday lives and environment. The role of the caregivers is of utter importance during this phase, as direct hours are not 24/7 and generalization requires other individuals for mastery. In the field of ABA, there is resistance from caregivers when it comes to treatment implementation. Research has shown that in other fields, as part of client-based therapy, Motivational Interviewing increases the response and compliance in treatment from these individuals. Motivational interviewing is a counseling style approach which is a person-centered method that guides to elicit and strengthen personal motivation for change. This systematic literature review will explore how MI has been used and implemented in similar scientific fields with similar populations (children, adolescents, adults and people with developmental disabilities) and demonstrate that MI’s application in the field of ABA will in fact reduce resistance from caregivers in treatment implementation as it has in other cognitive behavior fields.

Delay discounting tasks quantify the relationship between time and reinforcer effectiveness. The present study introduced a brief, user-friendly measure for practitioners interested in quantifying sensitivity to reward delays for school-aged children. Study 1 reanalyzed data collected by Reed and Martens (2011) and found that 1-month delay choices reliably predicted student behavior. Study 2 examined the utility of the indifference point at 1-month delay in predicting saving and spending behavior of second-grade students using token economies with two different token production schedules. Collectively, results showed that (a) the indifference point at 1-month delay predicts behavior, (b) children who discount less and have greater self-regulation accrue and save more tokens, (c) a variable token production schedule better correlates with discounting than a fixed schedule, and (d) there are group differences regarding sensitivity to the token production schedule change. Implications are discussed regarding future utility of a rapid discounting assessment for applied settings.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy utilizes techniques to promote mindfulness and psychological flexibility. Working on psychological flexibility Acceptance and Commitment Therapy can help people with anxiety induced stress encouraging them to be more mindful of their thoughts and how it effects their emotions. The techniques promoted in are gaining popularity with those who work in high stress fields. To understand how well known Acceptance and Commitment Therapy is, whom is providing training to those in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis, and whether the techniques have proven useful a survey was created for therapists who work 1:1 in various settings with children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. The results of the survey provide support to the ever-growing research on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as to whether it should continue to be promoted and utilized in a high stress field such as applied behavior analysis.

Technological innovations and online education channels have attracted young people to excessive screen time, adversely affecting their physical and cognitive abilities while growing obesity, vision, sleep, depression, and anxiety issues (Domingues-Montanari, 2017). Contingency contracts have been used to address writing skills, improving social interactions, and reduce challenging behaviors (Alwahbi, 2020). The current single subject study aimed to reduce the screen time of a 10-year-old school-going boy in grade 5. His classes had moved online due to the Covid-19 pandemic, and he attended 3 hours of daily on-screen academic sessions. Baseline measurements indicated that he spent an additional 6 hours watching TV or playing online games and declined to comply with verbal instructions to engage in other activities. We designed a contingency contract in discussions with him and his parents. The contract involved parents recording his screen time daily and rewarding him with an extra allowance at the end of the week for meeting the criteria specified in the contract. The participant was to engage in other preferred activities such as practicing notes on a keyboard and outdoor play with the extra time. The study used an A-B design. Results indicated that the contingency contract intervention reduced the screen time immediately and sustained the improvements. Keywords: contingency contracts, screen time

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the extent to which a final verbal response is dependent on mediating verbal behavior (covert or overt) occurring between the offset of the discriminative stimulus and the target response. Furthermore, this study measured changes in rates of mediating verbal behavior across five exposures to a discriminative stimulus. Participants solved fifty arithmetic problems with no accompanying visual stimuli while continuously emitting overt verbal behavior. For some problems, distractor stimuli were present (experimental condition) and for others, distractor stimuli were absent (control condition). The experimenter collected data on participants’ mean latency to respond, accuracy, and rates of echoic and self-echoic responses emitted during the response interval. Participants’ mean latency to respond significantly decreased across exposures, but decreased to a greater degree in the control condition. Participants’ mean accuracy significantly increased across exposures, but increased to a greater degree in the control condition. Participants’ mean rates of echoic and self-echoic responses significantly decreased across exposures, but decreased to a greater degree in the control condition. The results of this study indicate that the necessity of verbal mediation may depend on (a) the presence of distractor stimuli, and (b) the learning history with the discriminative stimulus.

The purpose of this study is to provide content validity evidence for the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP). A national panel of 13 experts provided an evaluation of the domain relevance, age appropriateness, method of measurement appropriateness, and domain representation across the three levels of the Milestones Assessment, Early Echoic Skills Assessment (EESA), and Barriers Assessment. Overall, the content validity evidence for the VB-MAPP Milestones, EESA, and Barriers Assessment was moderate to strong across the evaluated areas although there were areas with limited or conflicting support. The evidence suggests that the scores of the VB-MAPP provide information relevant to the target behaviors of interest but a few domains may not be fully represented by their specific items.

Working Memory (WM) and Syntactic Awareness (SA) are operationally described as sequential performances. Children with deaf and hard hearing (DHH) who use cochlear implant (CI) shows deficits in WM scores compared to normal-hearing, and few studies have reported the effects of teaching on these skills. This work assessed the effects of Equivalence-Based Instruction (EBI), involving sentences, on standard measures in WM and SA, in a 10-year-old boy with DHH and CI. Data collection was remote, computer-based, during the covid-19 pandemic. EBI included conditional discriminations teaching between dictated sentences and pictures via Matching-to-Sample, and between dictated sentences and printed sentences construction via Constructed-Response-Matching-to-Sample. Three sets of sentences (regular, difficulties to decoding and pseudo - words), 4-terms (subject-verb-article-object, in Portuguese), and organized in matrices (overlapping the syntactic function) were adopted. Reading, tact, constructed-response, WM and SA tests were interposed to teaching sets. An increase was observed in speech accuracy for pictures tact (mainly with pseudo-sentences, from 49% to 98%) and WM percentile (from 0.3 to 3); SA scores decreased (from 20 to 16). The relations between the teaching of sentences, and WM and SA measures should be clarified with DHH and CI users; increasing the participants sample and adjusting designs are recommended.

Despite the vast amount of research generated by Skinner’s (1957) Verbal Behavior, elementary verbal operants are arguably understudied in basic research settings. To this point, the purpose of this study was to investigate the participation of self-stimulation (responding to one’s own visual response products) among copying text and taking dictation verbal operants by measuring performance in a novel intraverbal recall task. Using an online platform, undergraduate students completed a series of trials in which they (1) performed either a copying text or taking dictation response (dependent on group assignment), (2) completed a distractor task, and (3) recalled the initial response in an intraverbal test. Contingencies were arranged such that participants could earn points when copying text, taking dictation, and completing intraverbal tests and could avoid losing points during the distractor task. In half of the trials participants could see their response products, and in the other half they could not. Results suggest the extent to which the modality of antecedent verbal stimuli and self-stimulation participate in recall events and complex verbal behavior.

The present study sought to assist in preparing an individual with developmental and behavioral disabilities to transition into the workforce settings using stimulus equivalence training. The purpose of the training was to establish derived equivalence relations of job titles, responsibilities, and hypothetical individuals who serve in those positions. Conditional person (A) to job title (B) (A-B) relations were directly reinforced and conditional job title (B) to job responsibility (C) (B-C) relations were directly reinforced. Transitive person (A) to job responsibility (C) (A-C) and equivalence job responsibility (C) to person (A) relations were tested throughout the study. Results in a multiple baseline across employment settings (i.e., restaurant, school, and hospital) supported the efficacy of equivalence-based instruction. The participant was able to master directly trained and derived relations supporting this procedure in assisting adolescents to obtain necessary information to perform well in vocational settings.

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a Tier 1 classroom intervention used to encourage teachers to implement effective classroom management strategies to increase academically engaged behaviors (AEB) and decrease disruptive behaviors (DB) in the classroom. The GBG literature demonstrates positive effects across various settings and participants. However, only two studies explore the effects of the GBG on students with severe disabilities. To expand the GBG literature, this study used a single-case multiple probe baseline design to investigate the impact of the GBG intervention on students with severe disabilities and general education teachers in inclusive classrooms. Findings indicate students were able to understand classroom-wide expectations and participate in the GBG, as demonstrated by an overall increase in AEB and an overall decrease in DB across all participants. Findings also suggest that the GBG had positive effects on general educator behaviors illustrated by an increase in praise statements and the implementation of positive classroom management strategies. This study demonstrates how the GBG can be used to provide positive behavioral supports to all students, including those with severe disabilities in inclusive settings. Findings also indicate several implications for practitioners as well as future researchers in the field of special education.

The emergence of joint attention is a critical point in children’s social and language development. Research shows the efficacy of various behavioural teaching strategies in increasing responses and initiations of bids for joint attention among children with autism spectrum disorder. The use of gaze-based behaviours has been the predominate method of evaluating the attainment of joint attention, as a marker of social engagement and awareness of others’ attention. Although children with visual impairment have difficulty perceiving how others’ attention is directed towards stimuli, they are assumed to acquire joint attention through alternative sensory modalities and positive social experiences. The purpose of the current study is to examine the effectiveness of a parent-implemented behavioural teaching strategy via telehealth to teach children with cortical visual impairment to engage in more bids for joint attention. Three to five children under 6-years and their caregivers will participate in a behaviour skills training procedure using a single-case, multiple baseline design. This study will report on the findings from pre to follow-up changes in children’s engagement in joint attention. The results of the study are expected to provide valuable information about effective caregiver-implemented behavioural teaching strategies to increase joint attention skills of children with visual impairment.

According to the Center of Disease Control, approximately 40 million adults in the workforce have a disability; the numbers are increasing ((Disability and Health Data System [DHDS], 2020). There is growing support for inclusive workplaces for adults with disabilities alongside legislation and State endorsed vocational training however eligibility criteria, costs, and limited availability to training programs often make them inaccessible. Therefore, there is a need to evaluate other training options. Behavior Skills Training (BST; Fetherson & Sturmey, 2014) is considered an evidence-based training model used to teach novel skills to a variety of populations including adults with disabilities. A systematic literature review from 2000 to 2020 was completed to determine what is known about using Behavior Skills Training to teach vocational skills to adults. Eleven articles met inclusion criteria and were reviewed. Results supported that while Behavior Skills Training was effective in teaching vocational skills to adults, there were inconsistencies across components of Behavior Skills Training used, limited technological and measurement information reported, and outcomes indicting that the procedure was not efficient. Recommendations for future research are provided.

Many adults with developmental disabilities supported in residential services engage in challenging behaviour, interfering with their quality of life. Training direct care staff is essential to address these behaviours and improve relationships between service providers (SP) and service users (SU). However, little research directly assesses the effectiveness of training based on direct measures of behaviours or the long-term effects of these changes. This meta-analysis of 13 single-subject experimental designs evaluated staff training's effect on outcomes for SP and SU. The purpose of this research was to examine the types of training and factors responsible for improvements in SP and SU behaviours directly following training and during maintenance. Training in positive behavioural support was the most effective training for changing SP and SU's behaviour, followed by active supports. In-situ training and incorporating multiple components of behavioural skills training (particularly models and feedback) appeared to lead to greater changes. Follow-up was conducted for six out of 14 studies, and four maintained their results. The only factor found to account for these results was the use of a group format. This research demonstrates that the type of training and how training is delivered influence the effectiveness and maintenance of outcomes.

After an initial, multielement functional analysis resulted in low and undifferentiated levels of aggressive behavior across conditions, experimenters evaluated a diverted-attention condition in which a target therapist engaged in conversation with a secondary therapist and delivered mild reprimands following instances of aggression. The sensitivity of aggression to attention during this condition was demonstrated in a reversal design. Next experimenters evaluated multiple permutations of this condition including one in which a single therapist was present but engaged in a conversation on the phone. This condition required fewer staff members but also occasioned elevated levels of aggression as when both therapists were present. Aggression under this condition was then reduced using functional communication training.

Functional Communication Training (FCT) is a well-known and often recommended intervention to treat problem behavior among individuals with developmental disabilities. FCT consists of teaching a functional, alternative communicative response to replace problem behavior in the individual’s repertoire to allow them to obtain functional reinforcers that previously maintained problem behavior. Despite a number of literature reviews on FCT, to date, no literature review has examined studies that have evaluated FCT as a treatment for negatively reinforced problem behavior. It may be beneficial to explore treatment-related factors to inform practitioners and researchers on how to increase the social validity and generalization of FCT outcomes for negatively reinforced problem behavior(s). The primary purpose of this literature review was to evaluate factors that impact the effectiveness of FCT alone and/or in conjunction with other interventions to treat negatively reinforced problem behaviors. Results across 47 empirical studies supported and extended prior literature review findings. Some novel identified findings on factors that can affect FCT efficiency and generalizability were quality of reinforcement, variability of mands, and the exposure of problem behavior to establishing operations. Recommendations for clinicians and potential avenues for future research will be discussed. Keywords: functional communication training, negatively reinforced behavior, escape-maintained problem behavior

Cultural biases are prevalent in our society, and many instances have the power to influence individuals in different degrees. Within the South Asian community, there are numerous social stigmas and negative perspectives on seeking mental health services. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the social stigmas and cultural biases within the community experienced by parents who are raising children with developmental disorders. As a result, furthering their readiness to seek services for their child. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is beneficial in identifying values and choosing committed actions to aid parents in overcoming the barriers they face to better support their child. The specific ACT tools such as, identifying personal values, paying attention to the present moment, and choosing committed actions that are meaningful to them can help shift how this specific group approaches treatment for their child. Once caregivers identify what specific changes need to occur in their behaviors, whether that is influenced by South Asian stigma and biases experienced, this can influence the ability to access services for their child as early as possible. ACT is a powerful tool to overcome the prejudice caregivers encounter and promote fulfilling lives for their children.

The effectiveness of interventions based on functional analysis is well established in the empirical literature. A variation of the functional analysis is the trial-based functional analysis. The purpose of this paper is to provide a systematic review of studies that utilize the trial-based functional analysis as a means of assessing challenging behavior, synthesized with the Rispoli et al. (2014) study. The method is based on the method described in Rispoli et al. (2014), with some minor changes including the addition of an examination of interobserver agreement and procedural integrity, and a look at the number of studies published on trial-based functional analysis through the years. The results of the current study add to the growing literature on the effectiveness of the trial-based functional analysis as a means of identifying the function of challenging behavior. This systematic review adds to and synthesizes with the Rispoli et al. (2014) literature review by examining participants and trial-based functional analysis characteristics in studies ranging in date from 2013 to October 2020. We compare the results of each review and discuss directions for future research, implications for practitioners, and limitations of this study.

The present research study sought to elaborate and adapt necessary vocational skills training procedures to a remote climate. Adapting Constant Time Delay procedures (CDT) to online instruction allows researchers to examine the effects of teaching domestic and vocational skills, identified by the LIFE curriculum (Dixon, in press), to two individuals with various developmental and/or intellectual diagnosis. Throughout this study, researchers utilized a matrix training approach to assist in developing the selected domestic skills (i.e. washing a table, washing a fridge door, washing a window) to increase autonomous living and potential future employment opportunities. A multiple probe design across targeted skills was replicated across the participants within their homes with prompting provided over virtual conferencing due to COVID-19. Results demonstrated an increase of task completion independent of prompting for both participants and when presented with the Treatment Inventory - Short Form (TEI-SF) participants indicated the intervention was helpful, positive, and adaptable to their current circumstances.

Individuals with developmental disabilities have limited access to participate in leisure activities compared to typically developing peers. Despite an abundance of free time, this population has limited access to leisure activity participation due to maladaptive behaviors and deficits in communication and social interaction. Leisure activities provides an opportunity for them to build relationships and gain skills that are essential for successful integration into the general public. Video modeling provides several advantages, such as, it can be edited to show the desired behavior, and the video can be repeated for better understanding. This systematic literature review analyzed 16 single-subject studies published from 2000 to 2020 that used video modeling to teach individuals with developmental disabilities to complete leisure activities. The dependent variable was the percentage of completion of the leisure activities. The studies were analyzed using the guidelines of the What Works Clearing House (2020). Participants in the study were aged between 3-35 years and were diagnosed with a varying diagnosis that fell under the generic term of developmental disabilities. Initial results analyzed through visual analysis indicate that video modeling is effective. The study’s limitations and implications for future research are discussed.

The relative effectiveness of accumulated reinforcement over distributed reinforcement among persons with developmental disabilities (DD) has been well established especially on easy tasks. However, inconsistent findings have been found for studies using diverse task difficulties. In this study, effectiveness of distributed and accumulated schedule of reinforcement was investigated using a visuospatial working memory task with moderate level of task difficulty. 33 children with intellectual disability (ID) ages from 7 to 11 years old were recruited. This study used a within-subject design in which visuospatial working memory task was administered under a distributed and an accumulated schedule of reinforcement. Dependent variables were accuracy rate, response rate per minute and correct response per minute. The results showed that accuracy rate and correct response rate per minute in the accumulated schedule of reinforcement were significantly greater than the distributed schedule of reinforcement. There was no significant difference between the groups in response per minute. Implications and limitations of current research and suggestions for future research were discussed.

Perspective taking is a common skillset of interest when considering individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Emerging trends suggest a relational frame theory (RFT) lens can be effective in establishing deictic responding as a generalized operant of behaviour, which is arguably synonymous with improving perspective taking skills, and thought to underlie diverse social skills. The current project seeks to explore the extent to which relational training can improve deictic relational responding, as well as the effect of such training on performance on common Theory of Mind (ToM) tasks. This case study examines the learning trajectory of an 8-year-old boy with ASD via PEAK Equivalence and PEAK Transformation modules. Results suggest an RFT approach is effective for the participant, yielding program mastery and demonstrating relational responding. Despite evidence suggesting relational training may not transfer to performance on common ToM tasks in individuals with ASD, the results discussed in this paper may indicate otherwise. Implications and next steps are discussed.

Early intensive behavioural internvention (EIBI) is a treatment program designed to increase adaptive behaviour and decrease maladaptive behaviours for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The current standard of data collection used by EIBI programs in Manitoba is paper-and-pencil. Participants were three Autism Consultants and one Autism Senior Tutor currently employed in a large, community-based EIBI program. Differences between accuracy of collecting Discrete Trial Teaching and challenging behaviour data using paper-and-pencil and an eHealth tool (TNAC®) were examined. Questions regarding the social validity of both methods of data collection were also examined. There were no substantial differences in accuracy between collecting DTT and challenging behaviour data using paper-and-pencil or TNAC®. Respondents indicated in the social validity questionnaires that paper-and-pencil was the preferred method to collect data across all categories. These findings suggest that using an eHealth tool for data collection could provide benefits to an EIBI program if the social validity components are addressed.

Children with autism require specific course of psychosocial and educational interventions to reach their full potentials. Often, these interventions are based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, which are reported to be effective regardless of cultural or geographical boundaries. However, relatively little is known about what practices are prevalent in efforts to treat children with autism in many countries and regions outside the United States, particularly in Asian countries, which accounts for a large portion of the world’s population. Therefore, we conducted a scoping review of all single-case research conducted with children with ASD in all of East Asia, and examined what practices are currently being promoted using single-case design, and the overall situation for autism treatment in these countries. Furthermore, we collected data specifically on social validity in order to examine perceptions of participants in these interventions. Through a systematic search of the literature, we identified a total of 27 single-case studies, and we systematically coded, synthesized and analyzed the data from all studies. Implications and recommendation for future research will also be discussed to address the treatment gap of evidence-based practices in these regions.

For individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a wide variety of treatment techniques have been proposed to decrease stereotypic behaviors. A majority of studies used consequence-based approaches exclusively. I used a self-management treatment package to reduce stereotypic behavior of a 17-Years-Old Student with ASD, in the school setting. The treatment package includes: teaching to emit the target behavior when the therapist says so, teaching to tact the target behavior when the therapist does it, check on a card if the target behavior was emitted using a momentary time sampling measurement procedure; gradually increase of the interval of measurement. I use a withdrawal with a parametric design to show internal validity. Data shows an increase from a mean of 54% of intervals without stereotypic behaviors in baseline, to 100% of intervals without stereotypic behaviors with the treatment package starting from a 1 minute interval until a 3 minutes interval.

Research has demonstrated imitation to be a pivotal skill in early childhood, serving learning and social interaction functions for young children. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) frequently experience delays in this skillset, demonstrating challenges in the ability and/or propensity to imitate the actions of others. Current intervention programs frequently use Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) or Reciprocal Imitation Training (RIT) to teach imitation to young children with ASD. This study combined one component of RIT – contingent imitation – with DTT to enhance learning outcomes related to both the ability and propensity to imitate. A multiple probe design across three preschool children with ASD was conducted within participants’ early learning classrooms. Participants were between 4-years and 4-years, 8-months at study onset. One participant was White, one participant was Black, and one participant was of mixed racial background, Black and White. Response to intervention varied across participants, with participants whose teachers reported observing some appropriate object engagement at onset of intervention experiencing greater outcomes than the participant whose teacher reported observing limited appropriate object engagement. Further research is needed to improve the teaching of imitation to young children with ASD who exhibit low object engagement and an inability to imitate actions with objects.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, all affected countries have been forced to implement safeguards to protect their population, such as social distancing, mandatory quarantine, and contact restrictions. These safeguards impose drastic changes in people’s everyday life that may have an effect on their behavioral and mental health. Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are especially vulnerable to these changes, and little is known about the effects of the pandemic on their functioning. This study aimed to explore caregivers’ perceived impact of COVID-19 on individuals with ASD in 15 Latin American (LATAM) countries. 1826 caregivers from the 15 different countries completed an online survey. Participants were asked about behavioral changes in the individual with ASD that occurred after the implementation of COVID-19 safety guidelines. Results indicated that caregivers perceived more irritability (64.9%), anxiety (59.1%), and wandering (46.6%). Changes in aggression, eating and sleeping habits were not as frequently endorsed but still significant. COVID-19 has resulted in increased challenges for individuals with ASD worldwide. Knowledge about the impact of COVID-19 on behavioral and socioemotional functioning among those with ASD is needed to better understand and support their needs during these uncertain times.

Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s perceived ability to accomplish specific expectations. Research indicates that individuals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to demonstrate persistent behaviors associated with meeting expectations. Special educators are required by law to implement evidence-based practices for students with autism, most of which are rooted in the concepts and principles of applied behavior analysis. Special educators with high self-efficacy are likely to believe that they have the ability implement evidence-based practices for students with autism and behave in a manner that ensures such practices are implemented with fidelity. Therefore, it is pertinent that special educators have high self-efficacy related to the ability to effectively teach students with autism. The Autism Self-Efficacy Scale for Teachers (ASSET) is a reliable and valid measure of special educator’s self-efficacy for educating students with autism. We administered the ASSET to 100 special educators who work with students with autism in public schools. Results indicated variability in responding across and within participants. We evaluated potential moderating variables such as grade level taught, instructional setting, and years of experience. Practical implications and recommendations for future research will be discussed.

One of the core features of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is restrictive and repetitive behavior. It is also common for individuals with ASD to engage in problem behavior. The Behavioral Flexibility Rating Scale - Revised (BFRS-R), is structured rating scale that may be used to identify the severity of problem behavior that occurs when restrictive and repetitive behavior is somehow disrupted (i.e., demonstrating a lack of flexibility). Previous research suggests the BFRS-R may be used to inform the functional behavioral assessment process (Liddon et al., 2016). The present series of clinical data evaluates the use of the BFRS-R to inform a trial-based functional analysis and systematic treatment evaluation for severe aggression in a young man with ASD. Preliminary results demonstrate that that BFRS-R can be used to identify specific functional analysis conditions, yielding conclusive results (i.e., problem behavior occurrence during near 0% of control segments and 80-100% of test segments) and subsequent, function-based treatment evaluation conditions. That is, the BFRS-R may be informative in the assessment and treatment process of severe aggression with idiosyncratic functions of problem behavior related to behavioral inflexibility.

Children with developmental disabilities often achieve urinary continence later than their typically developing counterparts, or not at all. Incontinence can negatively impact an individual’s independence, hygiene, and physical comfort and can lead to stigmatism and reduced participation in social and community events. In this case study, we used an AB design to evaluate the effects of an intensive toilet training package on the continence of a young boy with autism spectrum disorder. The clinical team implemented a 1-day intensive toilet training package in the child’s home. For all subsequent days of toilet training, the caregivers implemented the packaged intervention. Following the first intensive day of toilet training, the percentage of appropriate urinations steadily increased and reached the mastery criterion of three consecutive days with 100% appropriate urinations and no accidents. We subsequently introduced a phase of enhanced reinforcement for self-initiations and observed a stable number of self-initiations until the treatment concluded. Results will be discussed within the context of practical implications, limitations associated with the weak experimental design used, and suggestions for future clinical applications.

Researchers and clinicians rely on single-subject comparison designs (e.g., alternating-treatment, parallel-treatment designs) to identify efficient intervention procedures that can improve learner outcomes. However, the extant literature has repeatedly noted the poor generality of the outcomes from such comparisons (e.g., Ledford et al., 2019; Johnston, 1988). That is, the efficiency of an intervention procedure is often idiosyncratic among the learners. Despite between-participant inconsistencies, some studies have demonstrated relatively consistent within-participant outcomes when multiple comparisons were conducted (e.g., Carroll et al., 2018; McGhan & Lerman, 2013; Yuan & Zhu, 2020). We will systematically review the studies that included multiple comparisons of the interventions to examine whether and the extent to which within-subject replication was demonstrated. If replication can be reliably achieved, clinicians may be able to utilize an initial comparison of the interventions to predict the relative efficiency of the intervention and can, therefore, inform the treatment-selection decisions.

Response to name (RTN) is often a deficit of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is a common treatment goal for children receiving early intervention services. Previous research has evaluated different prompting strategies to increase RTN without using physical guidance, which can be overly intrusive (Connie et al., 2019). The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the use of pairing to teach RTN to preschool-aged children diagnosed with ASD. During pairing sessions, the child engaged with moderately preferred items and the experimenter said the child’s name three times while placing a preferred edible item in the child’s mouth. Following the completion of ten trials, the experimenter began a post-pairing session. During post-pairing, the experimenter stated the child’s name five times. A correct RTN (i.e., looking at experimenter’s eye region for any duration within 5 s) resulted in a brief social interaction (e.g., greeting, comment). Following every three post-pairing sessions, we conducted generalization and control sessions. During control sessions, the experiment stated a name other than the child’s five times. Preliminary results show pairing is effective at increasing RTN with two children with autism. We continue to implement this protocol with additional participants to provide more evidence supporting the effectiveness of this procedure.

Functional communication training (FCT) typically consists of determining the function(s) of challenging behaviors and teaching the child an appropriate communicative response that can serve the same function as the challenging behavior once did. In this study, FCT was used to teach infants/toddlers at risk for autism to appropriately request for their caregiver instead of engaging in challenging behaviors when the caregiver left the room. This study expands upon the current literature because of its participant age (under three years old) and “at-risk for autism” criteria (discussed in participant section). Five children were taught a functional communicative response (FCR) for their caregiver and then introduced to a time delay of reinforcement. Problem behavior decreased in all participants while the use of the FCR increased. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, data collection was cut short for 2 participants.

Early childhood interventions (e.g. Early Start Denver Model, Naturalist Development Behavioral Intervention), specifically parent or caregiver training for children at -risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are prevalent and there is an increasing concern for the caregivers sense of competency. Parent-Led Autism Treatment for At-Risk Young Infants and Toddlers (PLAAY) is a grant funded research initiative which identifies toddlers who are at high-risk for ASD and provides parent-assisted treatment for their children who experience challenging behavior and intervene through Functional Communication Training (FCT). This poster specifically evaluates the pre/post information to measure the change in responses from the Parent Sense of Competency (PSOC) scale. The PSOC will be used as a measure of social validity through a self-reporting questionnaire using a 6-point Likert scale to measure the parent’s competence through efficacy and satisfaction. The aim of this evaluation is to measure the caregivers change in overall competence after the PLAAY 10-week program. The results indicate a significant increase in parent’s competency after receiving caregiver-assisted treatment. This provides more information on the acceptability of early childhood interventions, specifically parent training with toddlers at-risk who display challenging behavior.

Involving typically developing siblings during interventions can be cost-effective and may lead to long-lasting and generalized behavioral outcomes for children with autism. Among the few studies that investigated the effects of sibling-mediated intervention, researchers have found that typically developing siblings were able to learn various procedures to improve learning outcomes of children with autism (Shivers & Plavnick, 2015). However, it may be difficult for typically developing siblings to learn and implement multiple interventions with varying protocols at a high level of integrity when teaching different skills to children with autism. Using a multiple baseline across behavior design, we investigated if 1) self-management could be used to maintain a high level of integrity when the typically developing sibling implemented a model-lead-test strategy and 2) the sibling-mediated model-lead-test strategy could effectively improve skills across multiple domains for children with autism. Our results showed that the self-management tactic effectively led to the correct implementation of the model-lead-test strategy and, in turn, resulted in improvement of the target skills across domains.

Because 30% of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience difficulties with vocal communication, augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems provide a means for those persons to communicate with others. When making a recommendation for a suitable AAC for an individual with communication impairments, practitioners must have access to the most current data. This systematic review screened various academic and professional data bases which yielded nine (n=9) alternating treatment design single case studies. These studies were compared to evaluate the efficacy of various AAC modalities using the TauU method of data non-overlap. This study also compared operants, evidence-based best practices, quality indicators, and modality preferences of participants. Visual and statistical analyses indicate most of the participants both preferred and performed better using a speech generating device (SGD) compared to picture exchange systems and manual sign. The findings of this study suggest that practitioners should consider using SGD systems to facilitate verbal behavior in children who experience ASD with limited or no vocal communication and that there is a need for SGD research beyond the utilization of mand training and participants 13 or younger.

Vocal stereotypy often interferes with an individual’s ability to acquire adaptive skills and can be socially stigmatizing (Gibbs et al., 2018). Vocal stereotypy is often maintained through automatic reinforcement. Response Interruption and Redirection (RIRD) is often used to address automatically maintained behavior. However, vocal stereotypy can be difficult to physically redirect. This study investigated the impact of RIRD on reducing vocal stereotypy on a student with ASD, whose stereotypies often pertained to past and future events. The intervention included a mindfulness component that required the student to engage in three verbal responses answering questions regarding the immediate environment or engaging the five senses. The study utilized a multiple baseline across settings design. The settings were a) sensory room where student is alone with preferred items, b) group lesson in which the student engaged in an activity with peers, and c) during workstations/independent work in which direct 1:1 instruction is given. The results showed decreased rates of vocal stereotypy in all settings. A withdrawal design demonstrated a return to increased rates of vocal stereotypy. The intervention appears to keep the student engaged with their immediate environment, reducing the likelihood of engagement in vocal stereotypy.

Autism is a neurological disorder that presents marked differences in behaviors in individuals. The external context which surrounds both the neurotypical population and individuals with autism is similar, yet there are consistent differences between these two groups. We have proposed a model which allows a functional contextualistic account of behavior that emphasizes the interaction between a neurological context, the external context, and behavior, to allow behavior analysts in conjunction with neuroscientists an equivalent approach for behavior. We reviewed the existing literature comparing neurological differences between individuals with autism and matched typically developing peers during executive functioning tasks that may require verbal relational responding. Neurological activity within the neurotypical population involves activation in the frontoparietal regions, which appears to overlap with regions of deficits within the autism population. These results support a potential complex interaction between neurological contextual differences and external contextual similarities that predicts performance difference in individuals with autism.

Prompting is classified as an evidence-based practice for individuals with autism (National Autism Center, 2015). Within the last ten years there have been several reviews on augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for individuals with autism that commonly report prompting. However, there exists a need for further research to focus exclusively on prompting in AAC intervention research that provides details on the systematic prompting procedures and procedural parameters. This project reviewed six literature reviews published since 2011 on AAC and autism. From these six reviews, there were 125 included studies; 71 after duplicates were removed. These original 71 studies were reanalyzed to extract prompting elements from the intervention procedures. Thirty-three studies provided sufficient detail to be included in this analysis. Results suggest that the most commonly reported prompting procedure was system of least prompts (n=14) followed by constant time delay (n=8). Additional procedural parameters evaluated include: prompt levels, the types and arrangement of prompts, as well as time components. Results are also reported for the types of AAC systems and the targeted communication skill. The identification of these elements can aid practitioners in making informed decisions when utilizing prompting, as well as highlighting additional areas of need for future research.

Self-stimulatory behaviors in the form of hand flapping is a common form of stereotypy found in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The participant in the study engaged in this form of stereotypy so often that it was directly impeding with his learning and affecting his ability to form social relationships with others. Data collection and analysis indicated that the behavior may be primarily functioning as self-stimulation. Using a behavioral intervention package involving DRI, response interruption, and DRO strategies, the behavior was significantly reduced. The participant was able to engage in classroom activities and independent activity schedules with minimal engagement of hand flapping. His on task behavior and rate of skill acquisition has increased and maintained as the plan was systematically faded out.

The current study sought to establish whether rate of task acquisition may be affected by the interaction between learning ability and task difficulty for children with autism spectrum disorder enrolled in an early intensive behavioural intervention (EIBI) program. To do so, specific teaching tasks selected from the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills-Revised (ABLLS-R) that were previously categorized into learning ability levels were taught to two children recruited from an EIBI program. Each participant, P05 and P07, was assigned three teaching tasks that were programmed as a match, a mismatch above, and a mismatch below their current learning ability level. Teaching tasks were taught using discrete trial teaching methods for a maximum of 64 trials per task. A single teaching task, mismatched below P05’s learning ability, was mastered after 25 trials. No other teaching task was mastered within 64 trials for either participant. As this was only the first study to assess the rate of task acquisition for ABLLS-R tasks categorized into learning ability levels through direct observation, future researchers should continue to explore the effects of task difficulty on rates of task acquisition.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder characterized by challenges in social skills, repetitive behaviors, and communication. Feeding problems are highly prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorders. Feeding problems can include food selectivity, prompt dependence, and refusal during meals.These behaviors are socially stigmatizing and can negatively impact an individual’s nutritional status. Research has demonstrated that strategies based on applied behavior analysis are effective for increasing appropriate behavior and decreasing inappropriate behavior in children with autism; however, there is little research on treatment of feeding problems in children with autism. The current study examined the effects of using reinforcement and systematic prompting to increase independence while eating. A reversal design (ABAB) was utilized in which treatment consisted of the therapist presenting a token board containing 3 tokens and a picture of chosen reinforcer, along with the verbal cue, “Time to Eat, 3 tokens for ___.” A vibrating timer was set for 10 seconds. If ten seconds elapsed with no independent bite, a gesture prompt (in the form of therapist pointing to fork) was provided. No verbal prompts were provided. The present study demonstrated that using systematic reinforcement was effective in increasing independence in eating. Additional sessions should be run to systematically fade the number of responses required for reinforcement, and to demonstrate maintenance.

The present study used a variation of the go/no-go procedure (Serna, Dube, & McIlvane, 1997) to teach auditory matching to four preschool-aged children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. Two sounds were presented in a continuous, alternating fashion at the start of each trial. If the sounds were the same, students indicated a match by touching a button; if they were different, students would refrain from touching that button for the duration of the trial. Phases of the intervention began with sound discriminations that became successively more complex, until they involved word discriminations. We used a nonconcurrent multiple-probe design to assess each participant’s performance on a list of echoics before, during, and after the intervention. Two students acquired a generalized echoic repertoire, one improved his articulation, and one acquired some vocal imitation skills; all four students could receptively identify matching sounds and words by the end of the intervention.

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, children with ASD have limited access to therapy sessions which would lead to worse behavioral and cognitive outcomes (Zwaigenbaum et al., 2015). Therefore, it is important to train parents on delivering evidence-based practices. As a regular practice in early education as well as home settings (Mucchetti, 2013), shared reading offer adults opportunities to read aloud to children while using strategies asking questions, commenting about the story, or expanding on the child’s utterance to promote interaction between the adult and child, as well as support the child’s language and literacy development (NELP, 2008). This systematic review provides evidence that actors as reading quality, duration as well as book types may impact children’s performance. In addition, prompt, repeated reading, praise, expand, evaluate as well as question prompts will contribute to language acquisition as well as communication. Also, behavior skill training which includes instruction, modeling, role-play, feedback is still the main and effective parent training method. However, the limited studies included in this review also indicate that more research needs to be conducted to explore effective interventions on supporting engagement and verbal behavior of children with ASD in home setting.

This poster presents a service delivery model for using Immersive Virtual Environments (IVEs) to teach children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) social interaction opportunities with their typically developing siblings. The relationships between children with ASD and their typically developing siblings are often strained due to the lack of social skills and other problem behaviors (Hastings, 2003, O’Brien, Cuskelly, & Slaughter, 2019; Ward, Tanner, Mandleco, Dyches, & Freeborn, 2016). Immersive Virtual Environments consisting of putting children with ASD into different social scenarios is a method that can be used to teach them appropriate social skills. This session will guide the audience through procedures used to teach children with ASD different skills used during play and social interaction through Immersive Virtual Environments. Specific procedures include children with ASD reviewing virtual scenarios prior to play opportunities then demonstrating observed skills with their siblings. Preliminary results indicate virtual reality is an effective way to teach children with ASD different social skills. Data will be shared if available by conference date.

In-home applied behavior analysis (ABA) treatment has well-documented results and is widely recommended for children with autism. Since 1987, parents have sought and implemented ABA treatment in their homes for their children with autism. However, research on parents’ lived experiences with in-home ABA treatment is limited. As such, there is a need to study the impact and influence of ABA treatment on parents’ quality of life (e.g., challenges, scheduling, parenting). This qualitative study explored parents’ lived experiences while their children with autism received in-home ABA treatment using a phenomenological approach. Five parents participated in a 60-minute interview about in-home ABA treatment for their child with autism. Data was processed and analyzed using structural and descriptive textures. Results revealed 5 themes: perceptions of the child’s ABA clinicians, knowledge of in-home ABA services, satisfaction with child’s progress, facing challenges, and commitment to child’s in-home ABA treatment. These results may help ABA professionals improve their understanding of parents’ lived experiences involving their children’s in-home ABA treatment. Additionally, the study may help parents understand the empirical implications of seeking and receiving in-home ABA treatment and help extend knowledge, support, and treatment integrity for positive change in the effectiveness of in-home ABA treatment.

Parent training has a strong research-base in behavior analysis and is a viable solution for problems associated with raising a child with a disability. The present study is a single-case parent training study conducted in a university-based clinic. The participants were a mother of three boys, one of whom was diagnosed with autism. The parent training involved assessing the parent’s values and aligning the training to the parent’s values. Over ten weeks, the parent was trained on implementing a naturalistic teaching program. Each training and feedback session included an assessment of values, progress, and committed action. Measures included the child’s communication and problem behaviors. The parent’s implementation fidelity was measured each session along with levels of acceptance and fusion. The study utilized an ABCB reversal design. The B condition involved parent training with the child’s two siblings present, while the C condition was conducted without the siblings present. The study demonstrated that increases in implementation fidelity were related to improvements in psychological flexibility and committed action. Concurrent changes in the child’s communication and reduction in problem behaviors were likewise observed. These findings are discussed in light of current research on integrating components of acceptance and commitment therapy in parent training programs.

The current study used a multiple-probe design to examine the effects of a treatment package, including systematic desensitization, demand fading, and behavioral momentum, on increasing tolerance to delayed and denied access. The intervention was presented to a child diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder receiving center-based one-on-one applied behavior analysis therapy who engaged in high rates of screaming, property destruction, physical aggression, and self-injurious behavior when presented with demands to wait or denied access to items or activities. The participant was given demands to wait or denied access to items or activities by being told “no” in a game format using items of varying preference in a classroom setting. Maladaptive behaviors were defined according to the participant’s individualized behavior intervention plan. Results indicated that the treatment package increased the participant’s tolerance to delayed and denied access and decreased rates of behavior targeted for reduction. The study was extended to a generalization phase where the game format was faded and being told to “wait” and/or “no” were applied to naturally occurring opportunities. Data from this study suggests that the treatment package was effective in reducing problem behavior, increasing tolerance for “wait” and “no,” and generalizable to natural settings.